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<h1 id="dependent-origination"><a class="header" href="#dependent-origination">Dependent Origination</a></h1>
<p><em>Paṭiccasmuppāda: The Buddhist Law of Conditionality</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-4-right-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-4-right-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-4-right-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>Basic definitions for the term paṭiccasamuppāda include ’dependent
origination’, ’dependent co-origination’, and the ’origin of suffering
dependent on co-conditionality’.</p>
<p>The Buddha presented the teaching of Dependent Origination
(<em>paṭiccasamuppāda</em>) in two ways: general presentations, which do not
specify each factor of the process, and detailed presentations listing
each factor in a connected sequence. The general presentation usually
occurs preceding the detailed presentation. The detailed presentation is
found frequently in the scriptures, usually alone, without the general
presentation; it expands on the general presentation, describing and
analyzing each factor of Dependent Origination.</p>
<h3 id="general-presentation"><a class="header" href="#general-presentation">General Presentation</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>When this exists, that comes to be;<br />
With the arising of this, that arises.</p>
<p>When this does not exist, that does not come to be;<br />
With the cessation of this, that ceases.</p>
<p><em>Imasmiṁ sati idaṁ hoti,<br />
imassuppādā idaṁ uppajjati.</em></p>
<p><em>Imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti,<br />
imasmiṁ nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati.</em><sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> <em>S. II. 28, 65.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h3 id="detailed-or-applied-presentation"><a class="header" href="#detailed-or-applied-presentation">Detailed (or ’Applied’) Presentation</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>With ignorance as condition, there are volitional formations.<br />
<em>avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā</em></p>
<p>With volitional formations as condition, there is consciousness.<br />
<em>saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṁ</em></p>
<p>With consciousness as condition, there is mind-and-body.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup><br />
<em>viññāṇapaccayā nāma-rūpaṁ</em></p>
<p>With mind-and-body as condition, there are the six sense bases.<br />
<em>nāmarūpapaccayā saḷāyatanaṁ</em></p>
<p>With the six sense bases as condition, there is contact.<br />
<em>saḷāyatanapaccayā phasso</em></p>
<p>With contact as condition, there is feeling.<br />
<em>phassapaccayā vedanā</em></p>
<p>With feeling as condition, there is craving.<br />
<em>vedanāpaccayā taṇhā</em></p>
<p>With craving as condition, there is clinging. {155}<br />
<em>taṇhāpaccayā upādānaṁ</em></p>
<p>With clinging as condition, there is becoming.<br />
<em>upādānapaccayā bhavo</em></p>
<p>With becoming as condition, there is birth.<br />
<em>bhavapaccayā jāti</em></p>
<p>With birth as condition, there is aging-and-death.<br />
<em>jātipaccayā jarā-maraṇaṁ</em></p>
<p>Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair thus come to be.<br />
<em>soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassupāyāsā sambhavanti</em></p>
<p>Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering.<br />
<em>evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti</em></p>
<p>With the remainderless abandonment and cessation of ignorance comes
the cessation of volitional formations.<br />
<em>avijjāya tveva asesavirāganirodhā saṅkhāranirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of volitional formations, cessation of
consciousness.<br />
<em>saṅkhāranirodhā viññāṇanirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of consciousness, cessation of mind-and-body.<br />
<em>viññāṇanirodhā nāmarūpanirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of mind-and-body, cessation of the six sense bases.<br />
<em>nāmarūpanirodhā saḷāyatananirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of the six sense bases, cessation of contact.<br />
<em>saḷāyatananirodhā phassanirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of contact, cessation of feeling.<br />
<em>phassanirodhā vedanānirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of feeling, cessation of craving.<br />
<em>vedanānirodhā taṇhānirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of craving, cessation of clinging.<br />
<em>taṇhānirodhā upādānanirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of clinging, cessation of becoming.<br />
<em>upādānanirodhā bhavanirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of becoming, cessation of birth.<br />
<em>bhavanirodhā jātinirodho</em></p>
<p>With the cessation of birth, (cessation of) aging-and-death.<br />
<em>jātinirodhā jarāmaraṇaṁ</em></p>
<p>Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair cease.<br />
<em>soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassupāyāsā nirujjhanti</em></p>
<p>Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering.<br />
<em>evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hoti</em></p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 1-2; S. II. 1-2, 65.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Both of these formats can be divided into two parts – the process of
origination and the process of cessation. The first sequence, the
process of origination, is called the cycle of origination
(<em>samudaya-vāra</em>). It is also known as the forward sequence
(*anuloma-*paṭiccasamuppāda) and is equivalent to the second Noble
Truth: the origin of suffering (dukkha-samudaya). The latter sequence is
called the cycle of cessation (nirodha-vāra) or the reverse sequence
(paṭiloma-paṭiccasamuppāda); it corresponds to the third Noble Truth:
the cessation of suffering (dukkha-nirodha).</p>
<p>The closing statements of the detailed presentation indicate that
Dependent Origination deals with the origin and cessation of suffering.
Most of the scriptural references to Dependent Origination end with
these statements. There are, however, passages that end with the origin
and cessation of the ’world’:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>This, bhikkhus, is the origin of the world;<br />
this, bhikkhus, is the cessation of the world;</p>
<p><em>Ayaṁ kho bhikkhave lokassa samudayo;<br />
ayaṁ kho bhikkhave lokassa atthaṅgamo.</em> <em>S. II. 73.</em></p>
<p>In such a way the world originates,<br />
in such a way the world ceases. {156}</p>
<p><em>Evamayaṁ loko samudayati;<br />
evamayaṁ loko nirujjhati.</em> <em>S. II. 78.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Here the words ’suffering’ and ’world’ are interchangeable, which
will be explained below.</p>
<p>The detailed presentation of Dependent Origination contains twelve
factors, which are part of an interconnected cycle, without a beginning
or an end. There is no ’first cause’ (<em>mūla-kāraṇa</em>). For the sake of convenience,
the Buddha chose ignorance (<em>avijjā</em>) as the most suitable
candidate to place at the start of the list of factors, but this is not
intended to imply that ignorance is the first cause. Occasionally, to
prevent the misunderstanding that ignorance is the ’first cause’, he
inserted the following statement:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>With the arising of the taints, ignorance arises; with the cessation
of the taints, ignorance ceases.</p>
<p><em>Āsava samudayā avijjā samudayo, āsava nirodhā avijjā nirodho.</em></p>
<p><em>M. I. 55.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The twelve factors of Dependent Origination, beginning with ignorance
and ending with aging-and-death, are as follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em><em>Avijjā</em> (ignorance) →<br />
<em>saṅkhāra</em> (volitional formations) →<br />
<em>viññāṇa</em> (consciousness) →<br />
<em>nāma-rūpa</em> (mind-and-body) →<br />
<em>saḷāyatana</em> (six sense bases) →<br />
<em>phassa</em> (contact) →<br />
<em>vedanā</em> (feeling) →<br />
<em>taṇhā</em> (craving) →<br />
<em>upādāna</em> (clinging) →<br />
<em>bhava</em> (becoming) →<br />
<em>jāti</em> (birth) →<br />
<em>jarāmaraṇa</em> (aging-and-death).</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are results of the cycle of
Dependent Origination, arising in the minds of those who have mental
impurities (<em>āsava</em> and <em>kilesa</em>) when they are faced with aging and
death. These results, however, take an active role by leading to a
further increase of mental taints (<em>āsava</em>), which are in turn the
conditions for ignorance and a continued rotation of the cycle.</p>
<p>In general, when presenting this detailed or ’applied’ format of
Dependent Origination (comprising the entire twelve factors), the Buddha
mentioned the forward sequence only as an introduction. When he wished
to emphasize the direct human experience of suffering, he most often
presented Dependent Origination in the reverse sequence:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em><em>Jarāmaraṇa</em> ← <em>jāti</em> ← <em>bhava</em> ← <em>upādāna</em> ← <em>taṇhā</em> ← <em>vedanā</em> ←
<em>phassa</em> ← <em>saḷāyatana</em> ← <em>nāma-rūpa</em> ← <em>viññāṇa</em> ← <em>saṅkhāra</em> ←
<em>avijjā</em>.</em></p>
<p><em>S. II. 5-11, 81.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>On some occasions, when he wished to highlight a particular factor, the
Buddha began the detailed presentation with one of the intermediate
factors. The presentation may begin with birth (<em>jāti</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> feeling
(<em>vedanā</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> or consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> and then be linked
with the subsequent factors until the process reaches aging-and-death
(for the forward sequence), or traced back to ignorance (for the reverse
sequence). Occasionally, the process begins with a factor or problem not
included in the group of twelve, and is then connected to the process of
Dependent Origination.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup> In summary, the presentation of Dependent
Origination is not fixed and does not have to mention all twelve
factors. {157}</p>
<p>Although the twelve factors are said to be interdependent and act as
conditions for one another, this is not the same as saying they are
’causes’ for one another. As a comparison, there are more conditions
other than the seed itself that permit a plant to grow: soil, water,
fertilizer, weather, and temperature all play a part. And these
interrelated conditions do not need to follow a set temporal sequence.
Similarly, a floor acts as a condition for the stability or positioning
of a table.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup></p>
<h2 id="significance-of-dependent-origination"><a class="header" href="#significance-of-dependent-origination">Significance of Dependent Origination</a></h2>
<p>The Buddha presented the principle of Dependent Origination as a law of
nature, which does not rely on the emergence of a Buddha for its
existence. The Buddha presented Dependent Origination as a natural truth
in the following way:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Whether Tathāgatas arise or not, that principle of specific
conditionality<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup> is constant, certain, and a law of nature. Having
fully awakened to and penetrated to this truth, a Tathāgata announces,
teaches, clarifies, formulates, reveals, and analyzes
it. And he says: ’See! With ignorance as condition, there are
volitional formations….</p>
<p>Thus, bhikkhus, this actuality (tathatā), this inerrancy (avitathatā),
this invariability (anaññathatā) – this specific conditionality
(idappaccayatā) – is called Dependent Origination.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup></p>
<p><em>S. II. 25-6.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The central importance of Dependent Origination is evident from the
Buddha’s words:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>One who sees Dependent Origination sees the Dhamma; one who sees the
Dhamma sees Dependent Origination.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 190-91.</em></p>
<p>Bhikkhus, the instructed noble disciple has a knowledge about this
that is independent of others: ’When this exists, that comes to be;
with the arising of this, that arises’…. When a noble disciple thus
understands as they really are the origin and the passing away of the
world, he is then called a noble disciple perfected in view, perfected
in vision, who has arrived at this true Dhamma, who possesses a
trainee’s knowledge, a trainee’s true knowledge, who has entered the
stream of the Dhamma, a noble one with penetrative wisdom, one who
stands squarely before the door to the Deathless. {153}</p>
<p><em>S. II. 78-9.</em></p>
<p>Those ascetics and brahmins who understand these things (i.e. the
factors of Dependent Origination), their origin, their
cessation, and the way leading to their cessation
… those ascetics and brahmins are deserving of the
acknowledgement as ascetics among ascetics and brahmins among
brahmins. By realizing it for themselves with direct knowledge, they
are recognized as in this very life reaching and abiding in the goal
of asceticism and the goal of brahminhood.</p>
<p><em>S. II. 16, 45-6, 129.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>On one occasion, the Buddha warned Ven. Ānanda not to misjudge the
complexity of Dependent Origination:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>[Ānanda:] ’It is wonderful, venerable sir! It is marvellous,
venerable sir! This Dependent Origination is so deep and appears so
deep, yet to me it seems clear and easy to understand.’</p>
<p>[Buddha:] ’Not so, Ānanda! Not so, Ānanda! This Dependent
Origination is deep and appears deep. It is because of not
understanding and not penetrating this truth that this generation is
afflicted and become like a tangled skein, like a knotted ball of
thread, like matted reeds and rushes, and is unable to transcend the
plane of misery, the bad destinations, the lower worlds, and the round
of rebirth (saṁsāra).</p>
<p><em>S. II. 92.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Readers who are familiar with the Buddha’s life story will remember his
reluctance soon after his awakening to proclaim the Dhamma:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Bhikkhus, this thought arose in me: ’This Dhamma that I have attained
is profound, difficult to see, difficult to realize, peaceful,
excellent, not accessible by reasoning, to be known by the wise. But
this generation delights in attachment, takes pleasure in attachment,
rejoices in attachment.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> It is hard for such a generation
delighting in attachment to see this truth, namely, specific
conditionality, Dependent Origination. And it is hard to see this
truth, namely, the stilling of all formations, the abandonment of all
foundations for suffering (upadhi), the end of craving, dispassion,
cessation, Nibbāna. If I were to teach the Dhamma and others would not
truly understand me, that would be wearying and troublesome for me.</p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 4-5; M. I. 167-8.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This passage mentions both Dependent Origination and Nibbāna,
emphasizing both the importance of these two truths and also the
difficulty in realizing them. The Buddha awakened to these truths and
explained them to others. {154}</p>
<h2 id="interpretations-of-dependent-origination"><a class="header" href="#interpretations-of-dependent-origination">Interpretations of Dependent Origination</a></h2>
<p>The teaching of Dependent Origination may be summarized as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>An explanation describing the evolution of the world and the cycle
of all life, by interpreting some of the Buddha’s words in a more
literal way, for example the Buddha’s teaching on the ’origin of the
world’ (<em>loka-samudaya</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>An explanation describing the birth and death of human beings and
the origin and cessation of human suffering. This explanation can be
subdivided into two further categories:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>A broad description of one life to another: the passing from one
realm of existence to another. This is also a literal
explanation and it is commonly found in the commentaries, where
it is systematized and described in great, and sometimes
intimidating, detail.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A description of a cycle present at each moment of life. This
description offers an interpretation of this teaching implicit
in the previous description (2A), but it focuses on a deeper
meaning of specific Pali terms, or on their practical
significance. This interpretation explains the whole cycle of
Dependent Origination in terms of present experience, which is
considered to be in line with the Buddha’s intention and the
real objective of this teaching, as evidenced by many discourses
of the Buddha, including the Cetanā Sutta,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup> the
Dukkhanirodha Sutta,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup> and the Lokanirodha Sutta.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup> In
the Abhidhamma an entire section is dedicated to the complete
sequence of Dependent Origination arising in a single mind
moment.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
<p>In reference to explanation #1, some people interpret Dependent
Origination as a theory of the origin (’genesis’) of the universe,
declaring ignorance as a ’first cause’<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup> in a process followed and
completed by the remaining eleven factors. {158} This interpretation
leads to the view that Buddhism resembles other religions and
philosophies that posit a prime agent, for example a creator God, who is
the source of all beings and all things. According to this
interpretation, the only difference is that these theistic doctrines
portray the creation and governing of the world by a force outside and
above nature, while Buddhism describes a causal, natural process.</p>
<p>This interpretation, however, is inaccurate, because any teaching that
professes a first cause or prime agent contradicts the teaching of
Dependent Origination or of specific conditionality. The teaching of
Dependent Origination offers an objective account of causality, that all
conditioned things are interrelated and interdependent. They arise in a
successive, causal process without beginning or end. A first cause,
either a creator God or other agent, is impossible. Therefore, the
explanation of Dependent Origination as describing the evolution of the
world is only suitable in the context of explaining a natural, causal
process of continual growth and disintegration, without beginning and
without end.</p>
<p>One way of determining whether an interpretation of Dependent
Origination is correct or not is to consider the Buddha’s intention in
teaching the Dhamma. The Buddha focused on things that can be applied to
bring about wellbeing, that are relevant to everyday life, and that
solve real-life problems. He considered attempts to reach the truth
through metaphysical speculation and debate to be fruitless. Determining
what is truly Buddha-Dhamma thus requires a consideration of a
teaching’s ethical and practical value.</p>
<p>The worldview that stems from explanation #1 of Dependent Origination,
above, is suitable and accords with the aims of Buddha-Dhamma. It
provides a broad perspective that things proceed according to cause and
effect, that they depend on natural conditions, and that they neither
originate from a creator God nor do they arise randomly or by accident.
Moreover, it is conducive to bringing about the following three
practical benefits:</p>
<p>First, one realizes that to find success and fulfilment, one cannot rely
on hope, desire, fate, divine intervention, or supernatural powers. One
only reaches success through concerted action; one must be self-reliant
and generate the conditions that lead to success.</p>
<p>Second, to generate these conditions, one must properly understand each
factor within the dynamic of nature in which one is engaged, as well as
understanding the mutual relationship between factors; wisdom is
therefore an essential element in the process. {159}</p>
<p>Third, the knowledge of causal connections reduces or eliminates the
mistaken identification with things as a fixed ’self’. This knowledge
promotes an appropriate relationship to things and leads to inner
freedom.</p>
<p>Although the explanation of Dependent Origination as describing a
beginningless and endless evolution of the world is acceptable, its
practical value is limited. It is not yet sufficiently cogent or
integrated to guarantee the three benefits mentioned above (especially
the third benefit of promoting freedom).</p>
<p>To truly profit from this broad interpretation of Dependent Origination,
one must refine one’s investigation by discerning the causal,
interdependent nature of all conditioned phenomena. When one develops
this clarity in every moment of one’s life, the three benefits mentioned
earlier are complete, and at the same time one reaches the true
objective of the interpretation related to the evolution of the world.</p>
<p>The explanation of Dependent Origination as the evolution of the world,
either in its broadest sense or in a more refined way, is a
contemplation of external phenomena. The second explanation, on the
other hand, emphasizes the internal life of human beings, including the
dynamic of human suffering.</p>
<p>The first subdivision (2A) is favoured by the commentaries, where it is
explained in great detail.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup> The commentaries coin many new
descriptive terms for this process in order to construct a clear,
organized system. The disadvantage, however, is that this system can
appear inflexible, and to students new to Buddhism, rather arcane. The
second subdivision (2B) is directly linked to the first (2A), as will
be described below. {160}</p>
<h2 id="relational-context-of-dependent-origination"><a class="header" href="#relational-context-of-dependent-origination">Relational Context of Dependent Origination</a></h2>
<p>The essential aim of Dependent Origination is to illustrate the origin
and cessation of suffering (dukkha). The term dukkha plays a pivotal
role in Buddha-Dhamma and appears in several key teachings, for example
the Three Characteristics and the Four Noble Truths. To understand the
complete meaning of the term dukkha, one must set aside the common
translation of ’suffering’ and examine the threefold classification of
dukkha,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup> along with its commentarial explanations:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha-dukkhatā</em>: a feeling of pain (<em>dukkha-vedanā</em>), as commonly
understood; physical suffering (e.g. aches and pains) and mental
suffering (e.g. grief); dis-ease; the suffering arising from
encounters with undesirable and disturbing sense objects.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vipariṇāma-dukkhatā</em>: suffering associated with change; suffering
inherent in pleasure. Pleasure becomes suffering or produces
suffering due to the transitoriness of pleasure. A person may feel
at ease, without any disturbance, but after experiencing a more
pleasant form of ease, the original state of ease may feel
unpleasant. It is as if suffering lies latent and manifests when
pleasure fades away. The degree of suffering is proportional to the
degree of pleasure that precedes it. Suffering can even arise while
experiencing pleasure if a person becomes aware of the fleeting
nature of that pleasure. And when pleasure ends, the sadness of
separation follows in its wake.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Saṅkhāra-dukkhatā</em>: the <em>dukkha</em> of conditioned phenomena; the
<em>dukkha</em> of all things that arise from causes and conditions, that
is, the five aggregates (<em>khandha</em>), including ’path’ (<em>magga</em>) and
’fruit’ (<em>phala</em>), which are technically classified as
’transcendent’. All conditioned things are oppressed by conflicting
component factors; all things arise and pass away; they are
imperfect. They exist in the ’stream’ of causes and conditions,
which generate suffering for someone who does not understand the
nature of conditionality, who with craving, grasping and ignorance
foolishly resists this process, and who does not engage with it
wisely.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The third kind of <em>dukkha</em> reveals the inherent nature of conditioned
phenomena, but it also has a psychological dimension. This state of
imperfection and stress prevents thorough satisfaction with conditioned
phenomena and continually causes suffering for a person who relates to
things with craving, grasping and ignorance.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup> {161}</p>
<p>The meaning of this third kind of <em>dukkha</em> is thus all-inclusive. It
corresponds with the meaning of <em>dukkha</em> in the Three Characteristics
(’all conditioned things are <em>dukkha</em>’). The pressure and instability
inherent in things may lead to the <em>dukkha</em> of the Four Noble Truths,
whereby craving, grasping, and ignorance come to fruition as suffering,
and whereby the five aggregates of nature develop into the five
aggregates of clinging of human beings.</p>
<p>In this context, one can include the three kinds of feeling (<em>vedanā</em>):
pleasure (<em>sukha</em>), pain (<em>dukkha</em>), and neutral feeling (<em>upekkhā</em>).
Painful feeling (<em>dukkha-vedanā</em>) is part of the first kind of <em>dukkha</em>:
<em>dukkha-dukkhatā</em>. Pleasant feeling (<em>sukha-vedanā</em>) is introduced in
the second factor of <em>vipariṇāma-dukkhatā</em>. Although neutral feeling (or
’equanimity’) escapes the first two factors, it is included in the final
factor of <em>saṅkhāra-dukkhatā</em>. Even equanimity is ephemeral, transient,
and subject to causes and conditions. If one is enchanted by equanimity
and wishes to indulge in it, one cannot escape the <em>dukkha</em> of
conditioned phenomena. The commentaries elaborate by stating that
neutral feeling (<em>upekkhā-vedanā</em>), along with all other formations in
the three planes of existence (<em>tebhūmaka</em>) are <em>saṅkhāra-dukkhatā</em>, as
they are oppressed by arising and dissolution. In sum, all three kinds
of feeling are incorporated in these three kinds of <em>dukkha</em>.</p>
<p>The teaching of Dependent Origination reveals how dynamics inherent in
nature develop into human problems as a consequence of ignorance,
craving, and clinging. At the same time, these natural dynamics reveal
how the interrelatedness of phenomena takes the form of a stream.
Various aspects of this stream may be distinguished: conditioned
phenomena are interrelated; they exist dependent on other conditioned
phenomena; they are inconstant, not remaining the same even for an
instant; they are not autonomous – they have no true ’self’; and they
have no first cause.</p>
<p>Seen from another angle, the way in which phenomena manifest in the
world – as appearing, growing, and declining – reveals their fluid
nature. This fluid nature exists because things are made up of
interrelated components. The stream of phenomena flows on because all of
its components are unstable, inconstant, and without true substance. The
particular features of interdependent processes both point to the
impossibility of a first cause and also allow for the manifestation of
distinct fluid entities.</p>
<p>If things were to truly possess a ’self’, they would be stable. If
things were stable, even for a moment, they would by definition not be
mutually dependent, and there would be no fluid entities. But, without a
stream of interdependent phenomena, nature would not exist in the way it
does. A ’self’ or fixed substance within phenomena would render true
causal interactions impossible. Because all things are impermanent,
inconstant, subject to decay, insubstantial, and interconnected, there
is a stream of conditions manifesting as distinct natural phenomena.</p>
<p>The Pali term for impermanence and instability is <em>aniccatā</em>. The term
for oppression through birth and decay, for inherent stress, conflict
and imperfection, is <em>dukkhatā</em>. The term for ’selflessness’ or
insubstantiality – the absence of any internal or external essence or
agent that dictates things according to desire – is <em>anattatā</em>. The
teaching of Dependent Origination reveals these three characteristics
and describes the interrelated sequence of phenomena. {162}</p>
<p>The process of Dependent Origination applies to both material things
(<em>rūpa-dhamma</em>) and to immaterial things (<em>nāma-dhamma</em>), to both the
material world and to human life, which comprises both physical
and mental attributes. This process manifests as particular laws of
nature, namely: (1) <em>dhamma-niyāma</em>: the general law of cause and effect; (2)
<em>utu-niyāma</em>: laws of the material world (physical laws); (3)
<em>bīja-niyāma</em>: laws governing living things, including genetics
(biological laws); (4) <em>citta-niyāma</em>: laws governing the workings of
the mind (psychological laws); and (5) <em>kamma-niyāma</em>: law of ’karma’
(intentional action; karmic laws)<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup>, which determines human
wellbeing and is directly linked to ethics.</p>
<p>Again, all natural processes, including the dynamics of karma, are
possible because things are impermanent and insubstantial. This fact may
be at odds with how people commonly feel. Yet if things were permanent,
stable, and possessed a solid core, none of the above laws of nature
would hold true. Also, these laws confirm that there is no first cause
for things, no creator God.</p>
<p>Conditioned things arise dependent on causes and they are interrelated;
they have no fixed core. A bed, to take a simple example, is composed of
various parts which have been assembled following a prescribed plan;
there exists no essential substance of the bed apart from these
components. Taking them apart, the bed no longer exists;
there exists merely a notion of ’bed’, which is a thought in the mind.
Even particular notions do not exist in isolation, but are connected to
other concepts. The notion of a ’bed’ only has significance in relation
to the notions of ’lying down’, a ’level plane’, ’position’, ’space’,
etc.</p>
<p>People’s awareness and understanding of particular designations is
linked to their understanding of the relational factors of that
particular entity. But when recognition of the object has been made,
habitual attachment in the form of craving and grasping leads the person
to be convinced of the object’s substantiality. The object is separated
from its relational context and true discernment of the object is
obstructed. Selfishness and possessiveness come to the fore.</p>
<p>As mentioned above, things do not have a ’first cause’ or original
source. Tracing back the causes and conditions <em>ad infinitum</em>, one still
cannot find a first cause. There is a strong impulse in people, however,
to seek an original source for phenomena, and as a consequence they
assign undue importance to particular entities. This impulse to find a
source conflicts with the truth, and the notions associated with
whatever is taken as a source become a form of ’perceptual aberration’
(<em>saññā-vipallāsa</em>).</p>
<p>People abandon their inquiry into causality too soon. A correct
investigation would go on to inquire into the cause of what is being
taken as the source and conclude that this line of inquiry is endless.
Things exist in mutual dependence, and therefore there is no ’first
cause’. Indeed, one can pose the question: Why is it necessary for
things to originate from a primal source? {163}</p>
<p>The belief in a creator God is equally at odds with nature. This belief
stems from the observation and common assumption that human beings are
responsible for producing things like tools, implements and crafts;
therefore, everything in the universe must also have a creator.</p>
<p>The logic of this reasoning, however, is flawed. People separate the act
of production from the natural context of conditionality. In fact, human
production is only one aspect of conditionality. In the act of
production, humans are one factor among many in a conditional process,
all of which combine to reach a desired result. The distinction here
from a purely material process is that mental factors (e.g. ’desire’)
accompanied by intention also play a role. But these mental factors must
combine with other factors in a conditional process to bring about a
desired end. For example, when building a house, a person influences
other factors to bring about completion. If humans were above the
conditional process, they could build a house out of thin air, but this
is impossible. Creation, therefore, is not separate from conditionality,
and since all conditioned things exist as parts of an ongoing causal
process, a creator God plays no role at any stage.</p>
<p>Another line of reasoning that contradicts the truth and is similar to
the idea of a ’first cause’ is the idea that in the beginning there was
nothing. This idea is connected to and stems from a belief in self: the
identification with composite parts that comprise an individual form. A
person establishes a notion of self and attaches to this notion. In
addition, he may believe that originally this self did not exist, but
rather came into being at a later time.</p>
<p>This limited way of thinking, of getting stuck on an object and not
having a fluid outlook on things, is an attachment to conventional
labels and a misunderstanding of conventional truth. It lies behind the
need to find a first cause or creator God as the source of all
phenomena, giving rise to such conflicting ideas as how can something
immortal produce something that is mortal or how can transient things
spring from the eternal? Apropos the causal, interrelated flow of
phenomena, there is no need to speak of an enduring or a temporary
’self’, unless one is referring to ’conventional truth’
(<em>sammati-sacca</em>). Again, one can ask why is it necessary to have
nothing before something can exist?</p>
<p>In any case, speculation on such topics as a ’first cause’ and a creator
God is considered to be of little value in Buddha-Dhamma because it is
irrelevant to the practical application of the teachings for bringing
about true spiritual wellbeing. Even though these philosophical
considerations can lead to a broad worldview, as shown above, they can
be passed over since a focus on practical application leads to the same
benefits. Attention here, therefore, should be on applying the teachings
to everyday life. {164}</p>
<p>As mentioned earlier, human beings are made up of the five aggregates.
Nothing exists separately from these aggregates, dwelling either inside
them or out. Nothing owns or controls the aggregates and governs life.
The five aggregates function according to Dependent Origination; they
are part of the interrelated flow of conditions. All of the components
in this process are unstable; they all arise and pass away, and they
condition further arising and decay. The interdependency of the
components enables there to be a causal process and continual stream of
formations.</p>
<p>The five aggregates are marked by the three universal characteristics
(<em>tilakkhaṇa</em>): (1) they are impermanent and unstable, subject to
constant arising and passing away (= <em>aniccatā</em>); (2) they are
continually oppressed by arising and dissolution; they inevitably
produce suffering for one who engages with them by way of ignorance and
attachment (= <em>dukkhatā</em>); and (3) they are void of any substantial
essence or self that is able to dictate things according to desire (=
<em>anattatā</em>).</p>
<p>These five aggregates, perpetually shifting and inherently
insubstantial, follow their own nature and proceed according to the flow
of interrelated conditions. Unawakened human beings, however, make the
mistake of resisting this flow by identifying with certain phenomena.
They then want this imagined ’fixed entity’ to last or proceed in a
desired fashion. At the same time, the eddying currents within the flow
of conditions conflict with desire, causing stress and increasing desire
and attachment. When desire is thwarted, the struggle to establish,
control, and stabilize an identity becomes more intense, which results
in ever greater disappointment, anguish, and despair.</p>
<p>A dim understanding of truth may lead a person to conclude that change
is inescapable and that one’s cherished ’self’ may disappear, but this
consideration only leads to firmer attachment intertwined with
deep-seated anxiety. Such a state of mind consists of three
defilements: <em>avijjā</em> (ignorance of the truth; the mistaken belief in a
’self’); <em>taṇhā</em> (the wish for this surmised ’self’ to be or not to be
in a particular way); and <em>upādāna</em> (grasping; binding this ’self’ to
things). These defilements are deeply embedded in the mind and they
control the behaviour of human beings, overtly or covertly. They mould
people’s personalities and shape their destiny. It is fair to say they
are the source of suffering for all unawakened people.</p>
<p>The preceding paragraphs have revealed a conflict between two distinct
processes:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The course of life that is governed by the law of the Three
Characteristics (<em>anicca</em>, <em>dukkha</em> and <em>anattā</em>), which is a fixed
law of nature. It manifests as birth, aging and death, both in an
ordinary and a deeper sense.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ignorance of the course of life; the mistaken belief in a stable,
enduring ’self’ and a subsequent attachment, accompanied by fear and
anxiety. {165}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The conflict is between laws of nature and a mistaken self-view, between
the causal dynamics in nature and people’s desires. People construct a
self which then impedes the flow of nature. When people’s desires are
unsound or thwarted, the result is suffering in its various
manifestations. This results in a life of ignorance, attachment,
enslavement, resistance to nature, and misery.</p>
<p>Conventionally speaking, the second process comprises two ’selves’.
First is the ’self’ or ’entity’ within nature that changes according to
causes and conditions. Although no true ’self’ exists, it is possible to
separate and distinguish one natural dynamic or flow from others,
and for practical purposes one can assign a conventional label
of ’self’ to each individual dynamic. Second is a false ’self’, a ’fixed
entity’, which one imagines to be real and clings to with ignorance,
craving and grasping. The first ’self’, the dynamic entity, is not a
cause for attachment. But the second ’self’, which is superimposed on
the first ’self’, is defined by attachment; it is inevitably undermined
by the nature of the first ’self’ and thus causes suffering.</p>
<p>A life of ignorance and attachment instils fear and anxiety in the
heart, affects behaviour, and makes people unwitting slaves to their
desires. It increases selfishness (a perpetual search for personal
gratification), possessiveness, and a lack of consideration for
others.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn23-1"><a href="#fn-fn23">23</a></sup></p>
<p>In order to reinforce and affirm their desires, people latch onto and
identify with those views, opinions, doctrines, belief systems, etc.,
that meet the needs of and accord with desire. They cherish and cling to
these views, etc. as if protecting their very selves. As a result, they
build a barrier that prevents them from accessing the truth: they hide
from the truth. This rigidity of mind means that their critical
faculties are impaired. And it can give rise to obstinacy – an
inability to tolerate or listen to the views of others.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn24-1"><a href="#fn-fn24">24</a></sup></p>
<p>When people establish ideas, views, and beliefs on what is good, what
should be achieved, and what is the proper way to reach desired goals,
they behave accordingly, and they observe corresponding traditions and
customs. Their behaviour may even be naive or irrational as a result;
they may act simply out of an attachment to such traditions and customs,
possessing only a faint understanding of the causal relationship of the
factors involved. Hence, they lack a clear understanding of cause and
effect. {166}</p>
<p>This is reflected in the lives of some religious seekers, who uphold
various ascetic traditions and practices with great intensity, believing
that such behaviour will guarantee liberation, realization, or a passage
to heaven. They then go on to criticize and look down on other people as
a consequence of these established practices.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn25-1"><a href="#fn-fn25">25</a></sup></p>
<p>At the same time, on a deeper level, such people are worried about the
preservation of their cherished ’self’, which is a fabricated concept.
Although they do not really know what or where this assumed self is,
they still lug it around and protect it. And because they fear that at
any moment the self may perish, they grab after whatever provides a
sense of self-affirmation, however obscure such things may be. Life thus
becomes restricted and their wellbeing is shaped by the fortunes of this
so-called ’self’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn26-1"><a href="#fn-fn26">26</a></sup></p>
<p>These repercussions do not merely affect the individual: the conflict
and suffering extends outwards, causing social conflict. All social
problems created by human beings stem from a life of ignorance and
attachment.</p>
<p>The detailed presentation of Dependent Origination outlines the origin
of a life of suffering; it outlines the origin of a sense of self, which
inevitably results in suffering. Breaking the chain of Dependent
Origination is to end a life of suffering, to eradicate all suffering
arising from a ’self’. This leads to a life of wisdom, non-attachment,
freedom, and harmony with nature.</p>
<p>A life of wisdom – of direct knowledge of the truth – entails deriving
benefit from one’s relationship to nature, which is equivalent to living
in harmony with it. To live in harmony with nature is to live freely
and with non-attachment: an escape from craving and grasping. And a life
of non-attachment relies on a knowledge of conditionality, along with an
appropriate relationship to things.</p>
<p>Buddhist teachings do not recognize a supernatural entity existing above
nature and having power over it. If something were to exist beyond
nature – to transcend nature – then by definition it could have no
influence over nature. Whatever is involved in nature is a part of
nature. {167} Natural phenomena exist according to causes and
conditions; they do not arise haphazardly. All amazing occurrences that
appear as miracles or marvels arise from and proceed according to causes
and conditions. We call these events miracles because the causes and
conditions remain hidden; as soon as the causes and conditions are
known, the sense of wonder disappears. The terms ’supernatural’ and
’preternatural’ are merely ways of speaking; they do not refer to some
entity that exists apart from nature.</p>
<p>A related subject is the distinction between ’man’ and ’nature’. The
expressions ’man and nature’ or ’humans control nature’ are simply figures
of speech. In fact, human beings are one part of nature, and humans can
control nature only to the extent that they exist as one condition within
it, influencing subsequent conditions and giving rise to particular
results.</p>
<p>What is unique in the case of human interaction is the involvement of
mental conditions, including volition, and therefore the term ’creation’
is used for human activities. But all the elements in the act of
creation are, without exception, conditional factors. Human beings are
unable to create anything out of thin air or in isolation, as somehow
separate from the conditional process. When humans understand the
requisite conditions leading to desired results, they enter the process
as one determinant factor, shaping other conditions to reach a desired
end.</p>
<p>There are two stages to successful interaction: the first is knowledge
and the second is to act as a condition for subsequent conditions. The
initial stage, equivalent to wisdom, is essential. With wisdom, one can
engage with things according to one’s wishes. A wise engagement with
things entails benefiting from one’s relationship to nature, or even
controlling nature, and this benefit extends to a person’s relationship
to both material things and the mind. Because human beings and nature
exist in a mutual relationship, to live wisely is to live in harmony
with nature. With wisdom, one has control over one’s mental faculties,
control over one’s mind: one has control over oneself.</p>
<p>A life of wisdom has two dimensions: internally, wise individuals are calm,
clear and joyous. When encountering pleasant objects, they are not
seduced or reckless. When separated from delightful objects, they are
not upset or despondent. They do not entrust their happiness to material
things by allowing them to govern their lives. And externally,
they are fluent and agile; they are prepared to engage with things
appropriately and reasonably. There are no inner attachments or
fixations that cause obstruction, prejudice, or confusion. {168}</p>
<p>The following words by the Buddha demonstrate the difference between a
life of attachment and a life of wisdom:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Bhikkhus, the uninstructed worldling feels a pleasant feeling, a
painful feeling, and a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. The
instructed noble disciple too feels a pleasant feeling, a painful
feeling, and a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. In this case,
bhikkhus, what is the distinction, the disparity, the difference
between the instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling?</p>
<p>Bhikkhus, when the uninstructed worldling is contacted by a painful
feeling, he grieves and laments; he weeps beating his breast and
becomes distraught. He feels two feelings – bodily feeling and mental
feeling. Suppose an archer were to strike a man with an arrow, and
then strike him afterwards with a second arrow, so that the man would
feel a feeling caused by two arrows. So too, when the uninstructed
worldling is contacted by a painful feeling … he feels two feelings
– a bodily one and a mental one.</p>
<p>Being contacted by that painful feeling, he harbours aversion towards
it. When he harbours aversion towards painful feeling, the underlying
tendency to aversion towards painful feeling lies behind this. Being
contacted by painful feeling, he seeks delight in sense pleasure.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn27-1"><a href="#fn-fn27">27</a></sup>
For what reason? Because the uninstructed worldling does not know of
any escape from painful feeling other than by sense pleasure. When he
seeks delight in sensual pleasure, the underlying tendency to lust for
pleasant feeling lies behind this. He does not understand as it really
is the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and
the escape in the case of these feelings. When he does not understand
these things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling lies behind this.</p>
<p>If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it as one bound. If he feels
a painful feeling, he feels it as one bound. If he feels a
neither-painful-nor-pleasant felling, he feels it as one bound. This,
bhikkhus, is called an uninstructed worldling who is bound<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn28-1"><a href="#fn-fn28">28</a></sup> by
birth, aging and death; who is bound by sorrow, lamentation, pain,
grief and despair; who is bound by suffering, I say. {169}</p>
<p>Bhikkhus, when the instructed noble disciple is contacted by a painful
feeling, he does not grieve or lament. He does not weep beating his
breast and become distraught. He feels one feeling – a bodily
feeling, not a mental feeling. Suppose an archer were to strike a man
with one arrow, but the second arrow would miss the mark, so that the
man would feel a feeling caused by one arrow only. So too, when the
instructed noble disciple is contacted by a painful feeling … he
feels one feeling – a bodily one, not a mental one.</p>
<p>Being contacted by that painful feeling, he harbours no aversion
towards it. Since he harbours no aversion towards painful feeling, the
underlying tendency to aversion towards painful feeling does not lie
behind this. Being contacted by painful feeling, he does not seek
delight in sensual pleasure. For what reason? Because the instructed
noble disciple knows of an escape from painful feeling other than
sensual pleasure. Since he does not seek delight in sensual pleasure,
the underlying tendency to lust for pleasant feeling does not lie
behind this. He understands as it really is the origin and the passing
away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the case of
these feelings. Since he understands these things, the underlying
tendency to ignorance in regard to neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling does not lie behind this.</p>
<p>If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it detached. If he feels a
painful feeling, he feels it detached. If he feels a
neither-painful-nor-pleasant felling, he feels it detached. This,
bhikkhus, is called a noble disciple who is free from birth, aging and
death; who is free from sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair;
who is free from suffering, I say.</p>
<p>This, bhikkhus, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference
between the instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling.</p>
<p><em>S. IV. 207-210.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The preceding section emphasizes knowing things as they are, knowing
what to revise and what to cultivate in the heart, and knowing what is
gained by such revision and cultivation. The proper conduct in relation
to revision and cultivation is a matter of practical application, which
will be addressed below. {170}</p>
<h2 id="orthodox-explanation"><a class="header" href="#orthodox-explanation">Orthodox Explanation</a></h2>
<p>The orthodox explanation of Dependent Origination is detailed and
intricate. Its study requires extensive knowledge of the texts and of
the Pali language.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn29-1"><a href="#fn-fn29">29</a></sup> Much of that material is beyond the scope of
this book and here a basic summary must suffice.</p>
<h3 id="factors-of-dependent-origination"><a class="header" href="#factors-of-dependent-origination">Factors of Dependent Origination</a></h3>
<blockquote>
<p>(1) <em>Avijjā</em> → (2) <em>saṅkhāra</em> → (3) <em>viññāṇa</em> → (4) <em>nāma-rūpa</em> →
(5) <em>saḷāyatana</em> → (6) <em>phassa</em> → (7) <em>vedanā</em> → (8) <em>taṇhā</em> → (9)
<em>upādāna</em> → (10) <em>bhava</em> → (11) <em>jāti</em> → (12)
<em>jarāmaraṇa-soka-parideva-dukkha</em><br />
<em>-domanassa-upāyāsā</em> → <em>dukkha-samudaya</em> (origin of
suffering).</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The cessation of suffering follows the same sequence.</p>
<p>The cyclical nature of Dependent Origination may be illustrated as shown
on
Figure <a href="#fig-cycle-of-dependent-origination">The Cycle of Dependent Origination</a>. {171}</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">The Cycle of Dependent Origination</span><a id="fig-cycle-of-dependent-origination"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/cycle-of-dependent-origination.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<h3 id="definitions"><a class="header" href="#definitions">Definitions</a></h3>
<p>First, here are basic and literal definitions for these twelve
factors:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn30-1"><a href="#fn-fn30">30</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Avijjā</em>: ignorance; ignorance of truth; a lack of clear