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<h1 class="menu-title">Buddhadhamma</h1>
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<h1 id="five-aggregates"><a class="header" href="#five-aggregates">Five Aggregates</a></h1>
<p><em>The Five Constituents of Life</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-1-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-1-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
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<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>From the perspective of Buddha-Dhamma, all things exist according to
their own nature. They do not exist as separate fixed entities, and in
the case of living creatures, they are not distinct and immutable
’beings’ or ’persons’, which one could validly take to be a legitimate
owner of things or which are able to govern things according to their
wishes.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup></p>
<p>Everything that exists in the world exists as a collection of convergent
parts. There exists no inherent self or substantial essence within
things. When one separates the constituent parts from each other, no
self or core remains. A frequent scriptural analogy for this is of a
vehicle.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> When one assembles the various parts according to one’s
chosen design, one assigns the conventional term ’wagon’ to the end
product. Yet if one disassembles the parts, no essence of a wagon can be
found. All that remains are the various parts, each of which is given
its own specific name.</p>
<p>This fact implies that the ’self’ or ’entity’ of a vehicle does not
exist separate from its constituent parts. The term ’car’, for instance,
is simply a conventional designation. Moreover, all of the constituent
parts may also be separated into further parts, none of which possesses
a stable, fixed essence. So when one states that something ’exists’, one
needs to understand it in this context: that it exists as a collection
of inconstant constituent elements.</p>
<p>Having made this claim, the Buddhist teachings go on to describe the
primary elements or constituents that make up the world. And because the
Buddhist teachings pertain directly to human life, and in particular to
the mind, this elucidation of constituent parts encompasses both
mind and matter, both mentality (<em>nāma-dhamma</em>) and corporeality
(<em>rūpa-dhamma</em>). Here, special emphasis is given to the analysis of the
mind.</p>
<p>There are many ways to present this division into separate constituents
of life, depending on the objective of the specific analysis.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> This
chapter presents the division into the ’five aggregates’
(<em>pañca-khandha</em>), which is the preferred analysis in the suttas.</p>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma, the human living entity – what is referred to as a
’person’ or ’living being’ – is divided into five groups or
categories:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> {14}<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Rūpa</em> (corporeality; body; material form): all material
constituents; the body and all physical behaviour; matter and
physical energy, along with the properties and course of such
energy.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vedanā</em> (feeling; sensation): the feelings of pleasure, pain, and
neutral feelings, arising from contact by way of the five senses and
by way of the mind.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Saññā</em> (perception): the ability to recognize and to designate; the
perception and discernment of various signs, characteristics, and
distinguishing features, enabling one to remember a specific object
of attention (<em>ārammaṇa</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Saṅkhāra</em> (mental formations; volitional activities): those mental
constituents or properties, with intention as leader, which shape
the mind as wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral, and which shape a
person’s thoughts and reflections, as well as verbal and physical
behaviour. They are the source of <em>kamma</em> (’karma’; intentional
action). Examples of such mental formations include: faith
(<em>saddhā</em>), mindfulness (<em>sati</em>), moral shame (<em>hiri</em>), fear of
wrongdoing (<em>ottappa</em>), lovingkindness (<em>mettā</em>), compassion
(<em>karuṇā</em>), appreciative joy (<em>muditā</em>), equanimity (<em>upekkhā</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup>
wisdom (<em>paññā</em>), delusion (<em>moha</em>), greed (<em>lobha</em>), hatred
(<em>dosa</em>), conceit (<em>māna</em>), views (<em>diṭṭhi</em>), jealousy (<em>issā</em>), and
stinginess (<em>macchariya</em>). They are the agents or fashioners of the
mind, of thought, and of intentional action.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Viññāṇa</em> (consciousness): conscious awareness of objects by way of
the five senses – i.e. seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and
feeling tangible objects – and awareness of mind objects.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>There are several points to bear in mind in reference to the final four
aggregates, comprising the mental aggregates (<em>nāma-khandhā</em>):<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup></p>
<p><strong>Perception</strong> (<em>saññā</em>) is a form of knowledge.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup> It refers to the
perception or discernment of an object’s attributes and properties,
including its shape, appearance, colour, and so on, as well as its name and
conventional designations. For example, one knows that an object is
’green’, ’white’, ’black’, ’red’, ’loud’, ’faint’, ’bass’,
’high-pitched’, ’fat’, ’thin’, ’a table’, ’a pen’, ’a pig’, ’a dog’, ’a
fish’, ’a cat’, ’a person’, ’him’, ’her’, ’me’, ’you’, etc.</p>
<p>Perception relies on the encounter or comparison between previous
experience or knowledge and new experience or knowledge. If one’s
current experience corresponds with previous experience – say one meets
a familiar person or one hears a familiar sound – one has ’recognition’
(note that this is not the same as ’memory’). For example, Mr. Jones
is acquainted with Mr. Smith. A month later, they meet and Mr. Jones recognizes Mr.
Smith. {15}</p>
<p>If a new experience does not correspond with previous experience,
people tend to compare it to previous experience or knowledge, looking
at those aspects that are either similar or different. They then
identify the object according to their labels or designations,
determined by the similarities and differences. This is the process of
perception – of designation and identification.</p>
<p>There are many layers to perception, including: perception in accord
with common agreement and understanding, e.g.: ’green’, ’white’,
’yellow’, and ’red’; perception in accord with social conventions and
traditions, e.g.: ’this is polite’, ’this is beautiful’, ’this is
normal’, and ’this is abnormal’; perception according to personal
preferences and conceptions, e.g.: ’this is attractive’, ’this is
admirable’, and ’this is irritating’; perception based on multiple
factors (perception of symbolism), e.g.: ’green and red symbolize this
university’, and ’two rings of the bell designate mealtime’; and
perception according to spiritual learning, e.g.: ’perception of
impermanence’ and ’perception of insubstantiality’.</p>
<p>There is both common, everyday perception and subtle, refined perception
(that is, perception that is intricately connected to the other aggregates).
There is perception of matter and perception of the mind. The various
terms used for <em>saññā</em>, such as ’recognition’, ’remembering’,
’designation’, ’assignation’, ’attribution’, and ’ideation’ all describe
aspects of this aggregate of perception.</p>
<p>Simply speaking, perception is the process of collecting, compiling, and
storing data and information, which is the raw material for thought.</p>
<p>Perception is very helpful to people, but at the same time it can be
detrimental. This is because people tend to attach to their perceptions,
which end up acting as an obstruction, obscuring and eclipsing reality,
and preventing them from penetrating a deeper, underlying truth.</p>
<p>A useful and practical division of perception (<em>saññā</em>) is into two
kinds: ordinary perceptions, which discern the attributes of sense
objects as they naturally arise; and secondary or overlapping
perceptions. The latter are sometimes referred to by specific terms, in
particular as ’proliferative perception’ (<em>papañca-saññā</em>): perception
resulting from intricate and fanciful mental proliferation driven by the
force of craving (<em>taṇhā</em>), conceit (<em>māna</em>), and views (<em>diṭṭhi</em>),
which are at the vanguard of negative mental formations (negative
<em>saṅkhāra</em>). This division highlights the active role of perception and
shows the relationship between perception and other aggregates within
mental processes.</p>
<p><strong>Consciousness</strong> (<em>viññāṇa</em>) is traditionally defined as ’awareness of
sense objects’. It refers to a prevailing or constant form of knowing.
It is both the basis and the channel for the other mental aggregates,
and it functions in association with them. It is both a primary and an
accompanying form of knowledge.</p>
<p>It is primary in the sense that it is an initial form of knowledge. When
one sees something (that is, visual consciousness arises), one may feel
pleasure or distress (= feeling – <em>vedanā</em>). One then identifies the
object (perception – <em>saññā</em>), followed by various intentions and
thoughts (volitional formations – <em>saṅkhāra</em>). For example, one sees
the sky (= <em>viññāṇa</em>) and feels delighted (= <em>vedanā</em>). One knows the
sky to be bright, beautiful, the colour of indigo, an afternoon sky (=
<em>saññā</em>). One is delighted by the sky and wishes to admire it for a
long, uninterrupted period of time. One resents the fact that one’s view
is obstructed, and one wonders how one can find a place to watch the sky
at one’s leisure (= <em>saṅkhāra</em>).</p>
<p>Consciousness is an accompanying form of knowledge in that one knows in
conjunction with the other aggregates. When one feels happy (=
<em>vedanā</em>), one knows that one is happy (= <em>viññāṇa</em>). (Note that the
feeling of happiness is not the same as knowing that one is happy.) When
one suffers (= <em>vedanā</em>), one knows that one is suffering (= <em>viññāṇa</em>).
Perceiving something as pleasurable or painful (= <em>saññā</em>), one knows
accordingly.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> And when one engages in various thoughts and
intentions (= <em>saṅkhāra</em>), there is a continual concomitant awareness of
this activity. {16} This prevailing stream of awareness, which is in a
continual process of arising and ceasing, and which accompanies the
other mental aggregates, or is part of every aspect of mental activity,
is called ’consciousness’ (<em>viññāṇa</em>).</p>
<p>Another special characteristic of consciousness is that it is an
awareness of particulars, a knowledge of specific aspects, or a form of
discriminative knowledge. This may be understood by way of examples.
When one sees say a striped piece of cloth, although one may not
initially identify it as such, one discerns specific attributes, for
example its colours, which are distinct from one another. Once
consciousness discerns these distinctions, perception (<em>saññā</em>)
identifies them, say as ’green’, ’white’, or ’red’. When one eats a
particular kind of fruit, although one may not yet have identified the
flavour as ’sweet’ or ’sour’, one already has an awareness of such
distinctions. Similarly, although one may have not yet distinguished
between the specific kinds of sourness, of say pineapples, lemons,
tamarind, or plums, or between the specific kinds of sweetness, say of
mangos, bananas, or apples, by tasting the flavour one is aware of its
distinctive nature. This basic form of knowing is consciousness
(<em>viññāṇa</em>). Once this awareness arises, the other mental aggregates
begin to operate, for example one experiences the flavour as delicious
or unsavoury (= <em>vedanā</em>), or one identifies the flavour as one
particular kind of sweetness or sourness (= <em>saññā</em>).</p>
<p>The knowledge of specific aspects referred to above may be explained
thus: when consciousness arises, for example when one sees a visual
object, in fact one is seeing only specific attributes or facets of
that object in question. In other words, one sees only those aspects or
angles that one gives importance to, depending on the mental formations
(<em>saṅkhāra</em>) which condition the arising of consciousness
(<em>viññāṇa</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<p>For example, in a wide expanse of countryside grows one sole mango tree.
It is a large tree, yet it bears only a few pieces of fruit and in this
season is almost barren of leaves, providing very little shade. On
different occasions, five separate people visit this tree. One man is
fleeing from a dangerous animal, one man is starving, one man is hot and
looking for shade, one man is searching for fruit to sell at the market,
and the last man is looking for a spot to tie up his cattle so that he
may visit a nearby village.</p>
<p>All five men see the same tree, but each one sees it differently.
For each man eye-consciousness arises, but this consciousness varies,
depending on their aims and intentions in regard to this tree.
Similarly, their perceptions of the tree will also differ, according to
the aspects of the tree that they look at. Even their feelings
(<em>vedanā</em>) will differ: the man fleeing from danger will rejoice because
he sees a means to escape; the starving man will be delighted because
the 3-4 mangos will save him from starvation; the man suffering from
heat may be disappointed because the tree does not provide as much
shade as it normally would; the man looking for fruit may be upset
because of the paucity of fruit; and the man driving his cattle may be
relieved to find a temporary shelter for them.</p>
<p><strong>Feeling</strong> (<em>vedanā</em>) refers to the ’sensing’ of sense impressions, or
of experiencing their ’flavour’. It refers to the feeling or sensation
arising every time there is contact and cognition of sense objects.
These feelings may be pleasurable and agreeable, painful and oppressive,
or neutral. {17}</p>
<p>To avoid confusion with the aggregate of mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>),
it is important to note that feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) is an activity at the
level of reception – it pertains exclusively to the immediate effect an
object has on the mind.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup> It does not pertain to the stage of
intention or of acting in response to sense impressions, which is the
function of mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>). For this reason, such terms
as ’like’, ’dislike’, ’delight’, and ’aversion’ usually refer to the
activity of mental formations, which involves a subsequent level of
activity. These terms normally refer to volitional activities or to
reactions to sense impressions, as illustrated on
Figure <a href="#fig-vedana-and-sankhara">Feeling (<em>Vedanā</em>) and Mental Formations (<em>Saṅkhāra</em>)</a> about mental processes.</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Feeling (<em>Vedanā</em>) and Mental Formations (<em>Saṅkhāra</em>)</span><a id="fig-vedana-and-sankhara"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/vedana-and-sankhara.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>Feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) plays a pivotal role in the lives of sentient
creatures because it is both desired and sought after (in the case of
pleasure), and feared and avoided (in the case of pain). Each time there
is contact and cognition of a sense object, feeling acts as the
juncture, directing or motivating the other mental factors. For example,
if one contacts a pleasurable sense object, one pays special attention
to it and perceives it in ways that reciprocate or make the most out of
that sensation. One then thinks up strategies for repeating or extending
one’s experience of this object.</p>
<p><strong>Mental formations</strong> (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) refer to both the factors determining
the quality of the mind (the ’fashioners’ of the mind), with intention
(<em>cetanā</em>) as chief, and the actual volitional process in which these
factors are selected and combined in order to shape and mould one’s
thoughts, words, and deeds, resulting in physical, verbal, and mental
kamma.</p>
<p>In any case, the traditional analysis of the five aggregates focuses on
the components of reality, rather than focusing on the various dynamics
in nature that affect human life. For this reason, the description of
mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) in this context normally only mentions a
list of the determining factors (the ’fashioners’ of the mind), along
with their attributes. As for an explanation of conditioned processes,
at which stage these factors reveal themselves and are set in motion,
this is reserved for the analysis of Dependent Origination
(<em>paṭiccasamuppāda</em>), which demonstrates precisely how these factors
affect people’s lives.</p>
<p>In the teaching of Dependent Origination, mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>)
are defined in the context of practical application or operative
function; they are divided into: <em>kāya-saṅkhāra</em> (physical intentional
activity; bodily volition); <em>vacī-saṅkhāra</em> (verbal intentional
activity; verbal volition); and <em>citta-saṅkhāra</em> (mental intentional
activity; mental volition). This differs from the analysis of mental
formations in the exposition of the five aggregates, in which various
determining factors are simply presented as a list, e.g.: faith
(<em>saddhā</em>), mindfulness (<em>sati</em>), lovingkindness (<em>mettā</em>), compassion
(<em>karuṇā</em>), wisdom (<em>paññā</em>), greed (<em>lobha</em>), hatred (<em>dosa</em>),
intention (<em>cetanā</em>), and concentration (<em>samādhi</em>). If one compares
these analyses to a motor show, the analysis of the five aggregates is
similar to laying out all of a car’s parts for people to see, while the
analysis of Dependent Origination is like demonstrating the car as it is
being driven on the road. {18}</p>
<p>Of all the determining factors of the mind, intention (<em>cetanā</em>) is
leader or chief. No matter how many mental formations are operative at
any one time, intention always participates as the key factor in the
process. For this reason, the term <em>cetanā</em> is sometimes used alone to
represent all of the mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>). <em>Saṅkhāra</em> in this
context can thus be defined as: ’intention (<em>cetanā</em>), along with
associated factors (<em>sampayutta-dhamma</em>; ’connected factors’), which
shapes the mind as good, bad, or neutral, and which determines thoughts,
speech, and physical actions, giving rise to mental, verbal, and
physical kamma.’</p>
<p>Besides occasionally representing or defining all mental formations
(<em>saṅkhāra</em>), the term <em>cetanā</em> is also used to represent or define the
term ’kamma’. In this sense, these three terms – <em>saṅkhāra</em>, <em>cetanā</em>,
and <em>kamma</em> – all have roughly the same meaning. To offer an analogy,
Venerable Mani, the abbot of Majjhima Monastery, goes to receive an
offering of Tipiṭaka books. At the formal gathering, the announcement of
the honoured guest may state Venerable Mani, or the abbot of Majjhima
Monastery, or simply Majjhima Monastery – all three terms express the
desired meaning.</p>
<p>Besides its central role, intention (<em>cetanā</em>) also reveals the special
and distinctive properties of mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>), which set
this aggregate apart from the others. <em>Cetanā</em> may be translated as
’intention’, ’volition’, ’purpose’, or ’deliberation’. The special
attribute differentiating mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) from the other
mental aggregates is that they can originate spontaneously. The other
mental aggregates – of feeling, perception, and consciousness – on the
other hand, operate or function with sense impressions that are
immediately manifesting in the mind. They are associated with and attend
to these sense impressions, and they rely on the reception of them in
order to function. Mental formations, however, both deliberate over
sense impressions and act in response to them.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup></p>
<p>These explanations may clarify the following questions: Why are feelings
of ease and dis-ease classified as sensations (<em>vedanā</em>), while the
subsequent factors of liking and disliking are classified as mental
formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>)? Why are perception (<em>saññā</em>; recollection) and
mindfulness (<em>sati</em>; memory) classified into separate aggregates (<em>sati</em>
is included among the mental formations – <em>saṅkhāra</em>)? Why is wisdom
(<em>paññā</em>), which, similar to perception (<em>saññā</em>) and consciousness
(<em>viññāṇa</em>), is a form of knowledge, classified as a mental formation
(<em>saṅkhāra</em>)?</p>
<h2 id="saññā-and-sati-memory-recollection-and-mindfulness"><a class="header" href="#saññā-and-sati-memory-recollection-and-mindfulness">Saññā and Sati: Memory, Recollection, and Mindfulness</a></h2>
<p>There tends to be confusion among Buddhist scholars as to which mental
factor in the Pali vocabulary corresponds to ’memory’. <em>Saññā</em> is often
translated as ’recollection’, whereas <em>sati</em> may be translated as
’mindfulness’, ’recollection’, ’recall’, or ’memory’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup> In regard to
the latter term, there are some prominent sutta examples, for example
the passage praising Ven. Ānanda as foremost among the bhikkhu disciples
in ’remembering the Buddha’s words’. In this context the Buddha uses the
term <em>sati</em>: ’Of all my disciples, Ānanda is supreme in memory
(<em>sati</em>).’<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup></p>
<p>In the formal teachings, there is no confusion about this matter. Memory
is not the exclusive function of just one mental factor, but rather it
is part of a mental process, within which perception (<em>saññā</em>) and
mindfulness (<em>sati</em>) play the most prominent and important roles.</p>
<p>Both the terms <em>saññā</em> and <em>sati</em> have overlapping meanings in respect
to the concept of ’memory’. One aspect of perception (<em>saññā</em>) has to do
with memory, while other aspects are separate from it. This is the same
for mindfulness (<em>sati</em>): one aspect pertains to memory, while other
aspects function apart from the process of memory. {19}</p>
<p>Note these important distinctions between <em>saññā</em> and <em>sati</em> in the
process of memory:</p>
<p>Perception (<em>saññā</em>) designates and identifies sense objects. When one
encounters such objects again, <em>saññā</em> compares their current features
with established perceptions, determining any similarities and
differences. If one determines that the two (the old perceptions and the
new) correspond, this may be called ’recognition’. If there are
differences, one creates additional perceptions. The term <em>saññā</em> refers
both to the recognition, designation, and identification of objects (the
comparison and accumulation of data), and to perceptions themselves (the
actual data and information created and stored). In this context,
<em>saññā</em> creates the requisite conditions for memory. The important
attribute of <em>saññā</em> is that it engages with sense objects immediately
present; when these sense objects manifest, <em>saññā</em> is able to focus on,
identify, or remember them.</p>
<p><em>Sati</em> functions to draw sense objects to attention and to hold them
firmly in the mind. It directs and sustains attention to sense objects,
preventing them from drifting by or slipping away. These sense objects
may be currently manifesting or they may have occurred in the past. The
term <em>sati</em> thus encompasses such nuances of meaning as: ’recall’,
’recollection’, ’calling to mind’, ’reflection’, ’remembering’, and
’attentiveness’. In the context of memory, it remembers and enables
recall. In this sense, <em>sati</em> is the opposite of <em>sammosa</em>, which means
’forgetting’ (<em>saññā</em> is not paired with forgetting). <em>Sati</em> is
generated from within an individual, relying on the power of volition,
even when sense objects are not immediately manifest. Because it is a
volitional response to sense objects it is classified as a mental
formation (<em>saṅkhāra</em>).</p>
<p><em>Saññā</em> records and notes sense objects; <em>sati</em> draws sense objects to
attention. Both a healthy perception – the ability to identify things
clearly, to designate things in a well-ordered and structured way, and
to integrate and connect things (which relies on attentiveness and
understanding) – and a strong recall – the ability to recollect (which
relies on clear perceptions, constant mindfulness, and a bright,
peaceful, and concentrated mind) – are factors for a good memory.</p>
<p>At one time in the past Robert and Jake knew each other well. Ten years
later, they meet again and Robert recognizes Jake and remembers the
places they once visited and the activities they once shared. The
recognition of the other person is <em>saññā</em>, whereas the recollection of
past events is <em>sati</em>.</p>
<p>On one occasion Greg meets and talks with Karl. A month later, Greg’s
friends ask him whom he met and spoke with on that specific date. Greg
reflects on the past and remembers that he met with Karl. This
recollection is <em>sati</em>.</p>
<p>A telephone is located in one corner of a room, and a phone book is
located in another. Karen opens the book and finds the number she is
looking for. She makes a note of this number in her mind and then walks
to the telephone to dial it. As she crosses the room she keeps this
number constantly in her attention. The reading and noting of the number
from the book is <em>saññā</em>; the recall of that number from the moment she
leaves the book is <em>sati</em>.</p>
<p>When sense objects become manifest, one is able to perceive them
immediately. Yet when they do not manifest, and in the case that they
are mind objects (<em>dhammārammaṇa</em>; matters inherent in the mind), one
can use <em>sati</em> in order to draw them forth and focus on them. Moreover,
<em>sati</em> is able to call perceptions to mind, that is, it can recollect
past perceptions to be the objects of attention. <em>Saññā</em> is then able to
identify, clarify, and consolidate these previous perceptions, or to
perceive them in a new way according to one’s aims and objectives. {20}</p>
<h2 id="perception-consciousness-and-wisdom"><a class="header" href="#perception-consciousness-and-wisdom">Perception, Consciousness, and Wisdom</a></h2>
<p>Perception (<em>saññā</em>), consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>)
are all aspects of knowledge, yet they are part of three distinct
aggregates. The first two factors, described earlier in this chapter,
constitute an aggregate in themselves, whereas wisdom is classified
among the mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>).</p>
<p>Wisdom (<em>paññā</em>) refers to understanding in general, and more
specifically to comprehensive or clear understanding: to a thorough and
accurate understanding of the truth. This term <em>paññā</em> is defined in
many different ways, including: knowledge of causality; knowledge of
good and evil; knowledge of right and wrong; knowledge of suitability;
knowledge of benefit and harm; knowledge of advantages and
disadvantages; thorough knowledge of conditioned phenomena; knowledge of
constituent factors; knowledge of causes and conditions; knowledge of
origin and destination; knowledge of the interrelationship of things;
knowledge according to the truth; genuine knowledge; genuine
understanding; knowledge of reality; and knowing how to reflect on,
contemplate, analyze, and engage with or manage things and situations.</p>
<p>Simply speaking, wisdom is clear, correct, and genuine understanding.
Wisdom possesses an insight into reality and it penetrates into the
heart of problems. It supports both perception (<em>saññā</em>) and
consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>). In regard to the latter, it broadens and
deepens the range of consciousness. Likewise, in regard to the former,
it increases the range of perception, because the cognition and
apprehension of things is dependent on one’s knowledge. This is similar
to solving mathematical problems; as long as one cannot solve the
initial equations, one has no data or criteria for further calculations.
With increased understanding, one possesses the markers or raw material
for further perception and analysis.</p>
<p>Wisdom (<em>paññā</em>) stands in opposition to delusion (<em>moha</em>; ’ignorance’,
’misunderstanding’), whereas perception (<em>saññā</em>) and consciousness
(<em>viññāṇa</em>) are not contrasted with delusion in this way. Indeed,
perception and consciousness may fall prey to delusion. When one is
deluded and confused, one’s conscious experience and perceptions are
equally distorted. Wisdom assists here to rectify both consciousness and
perception.</p>
<p>Perception (<em>saññā</em>) and consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) rely on currently
manifesting sense objects in order to function. Images or concepts of
these sense objects are thus created and discerned. Wisdom, on the other
hand, reflects on sense objects and responds actively to them (wisdom is
a deliberative faculty, and is thus classified among the volitional
formations – <em>saṅkhāra</em>). It links various sense impressions with each
other, analyzes their various attributes, compares and considers various
perceptions, and discerns cause, effect, interrelationship, and the ways
to benefit from things. By doing this, it provides consciousness and
perception with wholesome food for engagement.</p>
<p>Ven. Sāriputta once responded to the question on how wisdom (<em>paññā</em>)
and consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) differ. He explained that wisdom knows
(’understands’; ’knows clearly’) that ’this is suffering’, ’this is the
cause of suffering’, ’this is the cessation of suffering’, and ’this is
the way leading to the end of suffering’. Consciousness, on the other
hand, knows (= discriminative understanding) that ’this is pleasure’,
’this is pain’, and ’this is neither pleasure nor pain’. Wisdom and
consciousness, however, are intimately entwined and in a sense
inseparable. Having said this, there is a distinction in that wisdom is
a ’quality to be trained and developed’ (<em>bhāvetabba-dhamma</em>), in order
to increase and strengthen it. In contrast, consciousness is a ’quality
to be fully understood’ (<em>pariññeyya-dhamma</em>); its nature and its
attributes should be truly recognized and understood.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup> {21}</p>
<p>The commentarial texts, including the Visuddhimagga,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup> explain the
distinction between perception (<em>saññā</em>), consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>), and
wisdom (<em>paññā</em>) in this way: perception (<em>saññā</em>) simply recognizes the
properties of a sense object, say that it is ’green’ or ’yellow’; it is
unable to understand the characteristics of impermanence, <em>dukkha</em>, and
nonself. Consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) also knows the object’s properties
(of ’green’, ’yellow’, etc.), and it is able to understand the
characteristics of impermanence, <em>dukkha</em>, and nonself (it understands
according to the counsel and guidance by wisdom). But it cannot deliver
a person to the actualization of the Path (i.e. to the realization of the
Four Noble Truths). Wisdom, however, accomplishes all three: it knows
the properties of sense objects, it discerns the three characteristics,
and it enables the actualization of the Path.</p>
<p>The commentaries use the analogy of three people who look at the same
coin. Perception (<em>saññā</em>) is like a young child who simply discerns the
shape of the coin – small, large, square, or round – its colour,
attractive sheen, and strange markings. He does not know that it is an
agreed-upon means of trade and exchange. Consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) is
like an adult who discerns the shape, markings, etc. of the coin, and
who knows that it is used for trade and exchange, but he does not
possess the deeper understanding of whether the coin is genuine or
counterfeit, or of what combination of metals were used to mint the
coin. Wisdom is like a treasurer, who discerns all of the above data,
and in addition possesses expert knowledge, to the extent that he may
look at, tap and listen to, smell, taste, or weigh the coin in his
hands, and know everything about it, including where and by whom it was
made.</p>
<p>Moreover, wisdom does not always arise. It may happen that only
perception and consciousness arise, devoid of wisdom. Yet when wisdom
arises alongside these other two qualities, it is difficult to
distinguish one from the other.</p>
<p>When Jāli and Kaṇhā<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup> sought a hiding place, they walked backwards
into the lotus pond, convinced that their pursuer would think that they
had only recently come out of the pond. This line of thinking on their
part may be referred to as wisdom (<em>paññā</em>). Later, Vessantara saw their
footprints and knew immediately that they had walked backwards into the
pond. This was because there were only prints leading away from the pond
and none leading towards it, and the impression in the prints was
deepest at the heels. This understanding may also be referred to as
wisdom. The children and their father applied different degrees of wisdom
and circumspection, which indicates how wisdom (<em>paññā</em>) derives benefit
from perception (<em>saññā</em>).</p>
<p>Prince Siddhattha saw an old person, a sick person, and a human corpse,
and as a result he reflected on and discerned the suffering to which
everyone is prone, without exception. He then went on to understand how
all conditioned things are impermanent, subject to arising, to
alteration, and eventually to passing away, and he saw the need to bring
to an end the suffering based on these conditions. These are all
examples of wisdom (<em>paññā</em>). When the Buddha was preparing to establish
Buddhism in the Magadha country, he went to visit the matted-hair
ascetics of the Kassapa clan, who were revered by the people of Magadha,
in order that they gain confidence in and endorse the Buddha’s
teachings. The insight and intuition behind this line of thinking by the
Buddha is also an expression of wisdom.</p>
<p>The term <em>paññā</em> is a general term describing the kinds of knowledge
mentioned above. There are many different levels of wisdom, for example
mundane wisdom (<em>lokiya-paññā</em>) and transcendent wisdom
(<em>lokuttara-paññā</em>). There are many other Pali terms indicating specific
levels, degrees, or aspects of wisdom, or referring to its specific
activities, qualities, or benefits, for example: <em>ñāṇa</em> (’knowledge’),
<em>vijjā</em> (’true knowledge’), <em>vipassanā</em> (’insight’), <em>sampajañña</em>
(’clear comprehension’), <em>pariññā</em> (’thorough knowledge’), <em>abhiññā</em>
(’supreme knowledge’), and <em>paṭisambhidā</em> (’discriminative knowledge’).
{22}</p>
<h2 id="relationship-between-the-aggregates"><a class="header" href="#relationship-between-the-aggregates">Relationship between the Aggregates</a></h2>
<p>The five aggregates are interdependent. The aggregate of corporeality
(<em>rūpa-khandha</em>) comprises the body, while the four aggregates of
mentality (<em>nāma-khandha</em>) make up the mind. Human life requires both
the body and the mind. When the body and mind function normally and
operate in unison, life progresses well. Mental activities, for example,
require an understanding of the external world and this understanding
relies on sense data (visual forms, sounds, odours, tastes, and tangible
objects) entering by way of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. Both
the five sense objects and the five sense faculties are material phenomena
(<em>rūpa-dhamma</em>) and part of the aggregate of corporeality – they are
part of materiality.</p>
<p>In this chapter the emphasis is on the mind, considering the body to be
similar to a readymade instrument prepared to serve mental activities.
The mind is considered to be the focal point of life, and its range of
functions is vast, complex, and profound. The mind gives value and
meaning to life, and it is directly connected to the teachings by the
Buddha presented in this book.</p>
<p>The four aggregates of mentality are intimately related, influencing and
conditioning one another. The arising of these four aggregates is
ordinarily outlined in the following way:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup></p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises (similarly
with the ear and sounds, the nose and odours, etc). The meeting of the
three is contact. With contact as condition there is feeling. What one
feels, that one perceives. What one perceives, that one thinks
about…</p>
<p><a href="https://suttacentral.net/mn18/pli/ms">MN 18 / M i 111-12</a>, <em>Madhupiṇḍika Sutta</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Here is an example: Gordon hears the sound of a bell (ear + sound +
ear-consciousness). He finds the sound pleasant (= <em>vedanā</em>). He
perceives the sound as ’melodious’, ’the ringing of a bell’, and ’the
sound of a melodious bell’ (= <em>saññā</em>). He likes the sound and wants to
hear it again; he thinks about striking that bell himself; he wants to
obtain the bell; he thinks about buying or stealing the bell, etc. (=
<em>saṅkhāra</em>).</p>
<p>Note the crucial role of feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) in this process. Perception
(<em>saññā</em>) pays particular focus on those objects providing pleasurable
sensations. The greater the pleasure, the greater the importance
bestowed on the object by perception. In addition, such pleasurable
feeling incites people to think and act in order to increase the
pleasure. One may describe this as a basic, ordinary, or elementary
process.</p>
<p>In this process, feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) acts as the incentive, similar to a
person who invites one to take something, or to refuse and avoid it.
Perception (<em>saññā</em>) is similar to a person who gathers and stores data
or raw material. Mental formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) resemble a person who
takes this raw material and shapes it in preparation for work.
Consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) is similar to the director of the work, aware
of everyone else’s activities; it both opens the way for the work to be
performed and it receives the results of the work.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup></p>
<p>One complex aspect of this process is that feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) does not
act as a catalyst for the other aggregates in a one-sided way. The other
aggregates, too, have an influence over feeling. Take the example of a
single piece of music that one person listens to and finds delightful,
whereas another person listens to it and feels depressed. Similarly, the
same person may listen to a song at one time and feel elated, while at
another time he may feel disturbed by it. {23}</p>
<p>A general principle is that those things that one likes and finds
pleasure in correspond to one’s desire. When one encounters them one is
happy. Inversely, those things one dislikes conflict with one’s desire;
when one encounters these things, one suffers. The mental formations,
say of liking, disliking, desire, and aversion, then condition another
round of feeling. Here, perception is also engaged, that is, mental
formations condition perception, which in turn influences feeling.</p>
<p>Here is an example: a person may see someone whom he admires behave in a
particular way and perceive that behaviour as lovely or endearing. And
he may witness other behaviour by someone he dislikes and perceive it as
annoying or abhorrent. Later he may encounter others exhibiting such
behaviour, which he has previously perceived as either endearing or
annoying (= <em>saññā</em>). As a result, he feels either delighted or
distressed (= <em>vedanā</em>), and either approves of or is angered by it (=
<em>saṅkhāra</em>).</p>
<p>This interrelationship between the aggregates can be even more complex.
Take for example a work project or study lesson that is difficult and
demanding. Performing the task alone may involve much turmoil and
discomfort, causing one to be disinclined from engaging with it. Yet, if
there are particular incentives, one may be more interested and
determined to do the work or to pursue the lesson. These incentives may
be pleasurable sensations in the present, for example the method of
learning is fun and entertaining, or they may be elaborate matters
associated with perceptions of future pleasure, say of gaining a reward,
achieving success, or deriving some benefit, either for oneself or for
others. These perceptions are dependent on various mental formations,
for example craving (<em>taṇhā</em>), conceit (<em>māna</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>),
which then lead to further perceptions by bestowing meaning, value and
importance to the work or study. Moreover, one now experiences pleasure
while performing the deed. Although one may feel physical discomfort,
one’s mind is imbued with joy, making one more eager to do the work or
to complete the lesson.</p>
<p>When the school bell rings in the late afternoon, the students hear the
sound (= <em>viññāṇa</em>). Having heard this sound every day, they may feel
neutral about it (= <em>vedanā</em>). All of them identify the sound as denoting the end of the school day (= <em>saññā</em>). Some children may
be delighted (<em>sukha-vedanā</em> + <em>saṅkhāra</em>), because they ache from
sitting all day and may now go out and play (= accompanying
perceptions). Other children may be sad (<em>dukkha-vedanā</em> + <em>saṅkhāra</em>),
because they must interrupt a useful and valuable lesson, or because
they must return to unkind and intimidating guardians (= accompanying
perceptions).</p>
<p>This entire process, beginning with consciousness, is an intricate
interrelationship of causes and conditions, which together create
people’s personalities and determine each person’s unique fortune and
destiny. Volitional formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>), represented by intention
(<em>cetanā</em>), are the agents which shape and mould the process, and in
this context <em>saṅkhāra</em> is the technical name for volitional action
(<em>kamma</em>). Inversely, kamma is the informal title for volitional
formations, representing them when they are actively operative. It is
the term used when referring to the crucial role that volitional
formations play, for example: ’It is kamma that distinguishes beings as
inferior and superior’;<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup> ’beings exist according to their
kamma.’<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup> {24}</p>
<h2 id="human-life-entails-the-functioning-of-the-five-aggregates"><a class="header" href="#human-life-entails-the-functioning-of-the-five-aggregates">Human Life Entails the Functioning of the Five Aggregates</a></h2>
<h3 id="all-phenomena--mind-and-matter--are-exclusively-made-up-of-the-five-aggregates"><a class="header" href="#all-phenomena--mind-and-matter--are-exclusively-made-up-of-the-five-aggregates">All Phenomena – Mind and Matter – Are Exclusively Made Up of the Five Aggregates</a></h3>
<p>Everything that exists in the world – in the vast universe – consists solely
of materiality (<em>rūpa-dhamma</em>) and/or mentality (<em>nāma-dhamma</em>), or in short
‘body and mind’. When referring to phenomena collectively, they are known as
‘mind-and-body’ (<em>nāma-rūpa</em>).</p>
<p>Mind-and-body can be divided into five groups or kinds, namely, the five
aggregates (<em>khandha</em>; the term ‘<em>khandha</em>’ literally means ‘group’ or ‘heap’).
In a nutshell, all that exists in the world comprises the five aggregates.</p>
<p>‘Materiality’ refers to the materiality aggregate (<em>rūpa-khandha</em>). In regard to
human beings, this refers to the body (<em>rūpa</em>) with its numerous organs working
in unison to sustain life. The remaining four aggregates of feeling, perception,
volitional formations, and consciousness are mental aggregates (<em>nāma-khandha</em>)
or mental phenomena (<em>nāma-dhamma</em>). In short, we can call these ‘mind’
(<em>nāma</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn-nama-1"><a href="#fn-fn-nama">23</a></sup></p>
<p>All sentient beings, including humans, exist as mind and body (<em>nāma</em> and
<em>rūpa</em>); everything else exists as materiality alone (<em>rūpa</em>). And to say that
human beings exist as mind and body is the same as saying that they exist as the
five aggregates.</p>
<h3 id="the-functioning-of-the-five-aggregates-constitutes-life"><a class="header" href="#the-functioning-of-the-five-aggregates-constitutes-life">The Functioning of the Five Aggregates Constitutes Life</a></h3>
<p>Human life or human existence is dependent on the working or functioning of the
five aggregates. The five aggregates make up a human being, an individual
(<em>atta-bhāva</em>). What is set apart from the individual is called the ‘world’
(<em>loka</em>). For this reason, we say that human beings live in the world.</p>
<p>Awareness, perception, and knowledge of the world relies on an engagement by way
of the six senses (<em>āyatana</em> – the spheres of contact), that is, the eye, ear,
nose, tongue, body, and mind (<em>cakkhu</em>, <em>sota</em>, <em>ghāna</em>, <em>jivhā</em>, <em>kāya</em>, and
<em>mano</em>). These six senses are inherent to human beings and are therefore called
the six ‘internal sense bases’.</p>
<p>The internal sense bases are frequently called the six ‘sources of sense
contact’ (<em>phassāyatana</em>; or ‘six sources of cognition’). Collectively, they are
called the ‘sixfold sense bases’ (<em>saḷāyatana</em>). The first five sense bases are
classified as materiality (<em>rūpa</em>), the sixth as mentality (<em>nāma</em>).</p>
<p>These six sense bases make contact with the six external sense objects, namely
visual forms (<em>rūpa</em>), sounds (<em>sadda</em>), smells (<em>gandha</em>), tastes (<em>rasa</em>),
tangibles (<em>phoṭṭhabba</em>), and mental objects (<em>dhammāramaṇa</em> or ‘<em>dhamma</em>’ for
short; often translated as ‘thoughts’), resulting in knowing and feeling. The
external sense objects are traditionally called the six ‘<em>ārammaṇa</em>’
(alternatively ‘<em>ālambaṇa</em>’). The first five sense objects are classified as
materiality (<em>rūpa</em>), the sixth as mentality (<em>nāma</em>).</p>
<p>When an internal sense base comes into contact with an external sense object, cognition arises:</p>
<ul>
<li>When the eye contacts visual forms, there is ‘seeing’.</li>
<li>When the ear contacts sounds, there is ‘hearing’.</li>
<li>When the nose contacts odours, there is ‘smelling’.</li>
<li>When the tongue contacts flavours, there is ‘tasting’.</li>
<li>When the body contacts tangibles, there is ‘touching’.</li>
<li>When the mind contacts mental impressions, there is ‘awareness of mind objects’.</li>
</ul>
<p>The unique form of knowledge represented by these six kinds of cognition is referred to as ‘consciousness’ (<em>viññāṇa</em>). (In this context, the term ‘<em>citta</em>’ is a synonym for <em>viññāṇa</em>.)<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn-citta-1"><a href="#fn-fn-citta">24</a></sup></p>
<p>They are called <em>cakkhu-viññāṇa</em>, <em>sota-viññāṇa</em>, <em>ghāna-viññāṇa</em>,
<em>jivhā-viññāṇa</em>, <em>kāya-viññāṇa</em>, and <em>mano-viññāṇa</em>, respectively. They comprise
the consciousness aggregate (<em>viññāṇa-khandha</em>) – the fifth of the five
aggregates and the fourth mental aggregate. Consciousness acts as the basis or
cornerstone of all other forms of knowledge.</p>
<p>When there is contact (<em>phassa</em>), that is, when a sense base like the eye
(<em>cakkhu</em> or ‘<em>cakkhu-pasāda</em>’ – the sentient organ of the eye) makes contact
with a sense object, in this case a visual form, seeing or ‘eye-consciousness’
arises. With such contact, the remaining three mental aggregates of feeling,
perception, and volitional formations, arise concurrently.</p>
<p>First, depending on the visual form, the arising of eye-consciousness gives rise
to one of the three kinds of feeling (<em>vedanā</em>): pleasure (<em>sukha</em>), pain
(<em>dukkha</em>), or a neutral feeling (<em>adukkhamasukha</em>), that is, neither pain nor
pleasure.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn-upekkha-1"><a href="#fn-fn-upekkha">25</a></sup></p>
<p>Second, alongside sensations of pleasure, pain, or a neutral feeling, there
arises the knowledge known as ‘perception’ (<em>saññā</em>). When seeing, hearing,
etc., one perceives and identifies a sense object as a ‘person’ or ‘cat’, as
‘metal’ or ‘wood’, as ‘large’, ‘small,’ ‘tall’, or ‘short’, as ‘green’, ‘red’,
or ‘black’, as the sound of a gun, the chime of a bell, or the song of a magpie
robin, as ‘fragrant’ or ‘malodorous’, as the smell of durian or camphor, as
‘sweet’, ‘sour’, ‘bitter’, or ‘spicy’, as ‘hard’, ‘soft’, ‘hot’, or ‘cold’, and
so on. If sense contact gives rise to neutral, barely perceptible feelings, or
to only faint sensations of pleasure or pain, perceptions will be superficial
and cursory. But if one experiences intense pleasure or pain, the associated
perceptions will be pronounced and remembered in detail.</p>
<p>In simple terms, perception (<em>saññā</em>) is the gathering and storing of
information resulting in a database of abundant memories and recollections. When
one encounters familiar people or objects, one recognizes them immediately and
accurately. And if one needs to access data from this memory bank, one applies
mindfulness (<em>sati</em>) to draw upon the data and put it into practical use as
desired.</p>
<p>Third, returning to the beginning of the process, when consciousness arises
resulting in seeing, hearing, smelling, and so on, what other factor is part of
this dynamic? The answer is intention (<em>cetanā</em>; determination; will; volition).
For instance, one intends to look, to see, to pay attention to a visual object.
Without intention, there is no consciousness – in this case, there is no
seeing. An object may pass by our field of vision but we don’t see it because we
have no intention of seeing it.</p>
<p>Intention is the chief agent in this process. It is classified as a ‘volitional
formation’ (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) – the third of the five aggregates. <em>Saṅkhāra</em> in this
context can also be defined as ‘conditioner’, ‘determiner’ or ‘fashioner’. That
is, it shapes and determines all volitional action (<em>kamma</em>/<em>karma</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn-kamma-1"><a href="#fn-fn-kamma">26</a></sup>
consisting of the various expressions of wholesome and unwholesome thoughts,
speech, and bodily action.</p>
<p>To sum up, the five aggregates, that is, the materiality aggregate
(<em>rūpa-khandha</em>) and the four mental aggregates (<em>nāma-khandha</em>), operate as
follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>An external sense object + an internal sense base →<br />
contact (<em>phassa</em>) →<br />
Consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) →<br />
Feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) →<br />
Perception (<em>saññā</em>) →<br />
Volitional formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>By way of volitional formations, people then engage with the world (<em>loka</em>).
(Trans.: Regarding the terms <em>āyatana</em> and <em>rūpa</em>, see Note <a href="#note-ayatana-rupa">Āyatana (Sense Bases) as Rūpa</a>.)</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Āyatana (Sense Bases) as Rūpa</span><a id="note-ayatana-rupa"></a></p>
<p>Trans.: Instead of using the term <em>āyatana</em> for ‘external sense object’ and
‘internal sense base’, the venerable author uses the term <em>rūpa</em>. His
explanation:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Occasionally, the commentaries refer to the five sense bases as ‘internal
<em>rūpa</em>’, representing all of the body, and all other materiality as ‘external <em>rūpa</em>’.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>He goes on to elaborate:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Volitional formations (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) give rise to mental action (<em>mano-kamma</em>),
verbal action (<em>vacī-kamma</em>), and bodily action (<em>kāya-kamma</em>), by which
people respond to and engage with the world. Moreover, the ‘world’ impacts and
is revealed to people by way of the five sense bases.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Note that there is a distinction between the five senses (highlighted here) and
the six senses which include the mind. This distinction is discussed at more
length in Chapter 2.</p>
</div>
<p>As mentioned earlier, consciousness (<em>viññāṇa</em>) can be used as a synonym for
<em>citta</em> (‘the mind’). Consciousness acts as the basis for the other three mental
aggregates of feeling, perception, and volitional formations, which are
associated with it and function dependent on it. Feeling and perception are
purely receptive; volitional formations, on the other hand, operate more
broadly, extending to a proactive role resulting in all forms of intentional
action.</p>
<p>As mentioned above, intention (<em>cetanā</em>) is classified as a volitional formation
(<em>saṅkhāra</em>). Volitional formations are creative agents that shape and determine
all human behaviour. There are numerous volitional formations (the Abhidhamma
lists fifty), both wholesome and unwholesome.</p>
<p>Unwholesome factors include greed (<em>lobha</em>), hatred (<em>dosa</em>), delusion (<em>moha</em>),
jealousy (<em>issā</em>), stinginess (<em>macchariya</em>), and lethargy (<em>thīna</em>).</p>
<p>Wholesome factors include mindfulness (<em>sati</em>), faith (<em>saddhā</em>), lovingkindness
(<em>mettā</em>), empathetic joy (<em>muditā</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>).</p>
<p>All of these factors are guided and directed by intention, giving rise to
volitional action (<em>kamma</em>) by way of body, speech, and mind. A person’s
thoughts, speech, and physical behaviour are dictated by these conditioning
factors (<em>saṅkhāra</em>). For example, if the mind is beset by greed or hatred, one
will be covetous, exploitative, and malicious, and one’s speech and physical
actions will be marked by hostility. In contrast, if the mind is imbued with
lovingkindness, sympathetic joy, and wisdom, one’s mental, verbal, and physical
behaviour will be wholesome; one will smile, be cooperative and supportive, help
to end conflict, and act for the welfare of society.</p>
<p>Here is another example of how the five aggregates function:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The eye (internal sense base or ‘sphere of contact’ <em>phassāyatana</em>)<br />
+ a visual form (external sense object <em>ārammaṇa</em>) →<br />
seeing (consciousness <em>viññāṇa</em>) →<br />
pleasure; pleasurable feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) →<br />
recognition of a cherished visual object (perception, <em>saññā</em>) →<br />
delight; gratification; desire for pleasure (<em>saṅkhāra</em>) →<br />
covetous thoughts; acquisitive thoughts (<em>saṅkhāra</em>)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Note the distinction here between ‘pleasure’ and ‘delight’. The former is purely
receptive; it is a sensation (<em>vedanā</em>); it is not active; it is not classified
as kamma. The latter, however, is a mental activity; it plays an active role; it
is a volitional formation (<em>saṅkhāra</em>); it is mental kamma (<em>mano-kamma</em>).</p>
<h3 id="vying-for-happiness-leads-to-increased-suffering-for-all"><a class="header" href="#vying-for-happiness-leads-to-increased-suffering-for-all">Vying for Happiness Leads to Increased Suffering for All</a></h3>
<p><em>Cultivating Happiness Through Wisdom Leads to the End of Suffering</em></p>
<p>The sensations (<em>vedanā</em>) of pleasure and pain play a vital role for people.
Although they are purely receptive mental phenomena, they become an impetus for
seeking out pleasure and shrinking away from pain.</p>
<p>When sense contact causes a feeling of pain, a mental formation of displeasure
normally arises. Intention is activated, along with various negative and
positive mental factors conforming to intention. For instance, the mind states
– or mental formations – of anger and aversion bring about an attempt to get
rid of the undesirable object or to escape from it. Data from the vast
storehouse of perceptions will be summoned and made use of. Intelligence
(<em>paññā</em>) – a positive factor – may be applied in order to come up with ways
to remove or eliminate the object. This mental activity may then lead to verbal
actions like commanding one’s subordinates to carry out one’s plans, or to
harmful bodily actions like aggressive behaviour.</p>
<p>Similarly, when sense contact brings about a feeling of pleasure, covetous
thoughts normally arise, accompanied by other mental formations, some negative
such as greed, some positive such as intelligence, and some neutral such as
effort (<em>viriya</em>). Numerous perceptions and memories will be summoned in order
to acquire the desired object, and intelligence will be applied in the form of
elaborate planning. This mental activity then leads to verbal actions like
consulting with like-minded individuals in order to acquire the desired object
through either honest or dishonest means. Bodily actions follow suit, whereby
one undertakes to experience the feeling of pleasure, by way of virtuous,
constructive acts or unscrupulous, harmful ones.</p>
<p>This conditional process (<em>paccayākāra</em>) in line with specific conditionality /
dependent origination (<em>idappaccayatā-paṭiccasamuppāda</em>) can be summed up by the
phrase: ‘<em>Vedanāpaccayā taṇhā</em>’, translated as: ‘With feeling as condition,
there is craving.’ Such craving can be affirming – as the desire to gain, to
seize, to consume – or negating – as the desire to escape, to eliminate, to
eradicate. Volitional formations then shape good and bad behaviour as described
earlier. People’s behaviour leads to various shifts and realignments in their
lives and in society, both positive – like growth and prosperity – and
negative – like personal suffering and social conflict and violence.</p>
<p>Craving – the struggle to escape from pain and the pursuit of pleasure – is
central to people’s lives. One modern-day country deemed highly civilized even
has a declaration urging its citizens to uphold the unalienable right or social
ideal of the ‘pursuit of happiness’. Practically speaking or in reality,
however, people tend to only go so far as getting caught up in sensual pleasures
and miss out on true happiness.</p>
<p>The importance of people’s relationship to feeling (<em>vedanā</em>) and craving
(<em>taṇhā</em>) is apparent in the following words of the Buddha:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Now it is for one who feels that I proclaim [the Four Noble Truths].</p>
<p><a href="https://suttacentral.net/an3.61/pli/ms">AN 3.61 / A i 176</a>, <em>Titthāyatana Sutta</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h3 id="a-life-grounded-in-wisdom-renders-a-pursuit-of-happiness-unnecessary"><a class="header" href="#a-life-grounded-in-wisdom-renders-a-pursuit-of-happiness-unnecessary">A Life Grounded in Wisdom Renders a Pursuit of Happiness Unnecessary</a></h3>
<p>A skilful relationship to feeling is predicated on a skilful way of living one’s