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<h1 id="the-law-of-kamma"><a class="header" href="#the-law-of-kamma">The Law of Kamma</a></h1>
<p><em>The Law of Kamma</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-5-temple-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-5-temple-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
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<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-5-temple-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
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</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>All of the Buddhist teachings, regardless of their name or title, are
interrelated and part of a whole. They all point to the same truth and
they all lead to the same goal. They are given different names in order
to point out specific aspects of truth, or else they refer to the same
thing but look at it from different angles, depending on the particular
aim of the teaching. For this reason, certain Dhamma teachings or
principles are subsidiary to a larger teaching, whereas others are
equally important and cover the same subject material, but have unique
formats and objectives.</p>
<p>The teaching of Dependent Origination (<em>paṭiccasamuppāda</em>) describes the
entire process of human existence, and it encompasses all the other
Dhamma teachings in a comprehensive way. It is a complete teaching. If
one comprehends Dependent Origination, one understands the essence of
existence or the entirety of Buddhism, as confirmed by the Buddha:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>One who sees Dependent Origination sees the Dhamma.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 190-91.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>In any case, it is generally acknowledged that Dependent Origination is
profound and extremely difficult to understand. Even explaining it is
very difficult. For this reason there are almost no texts dedicated
solely to explaining Dependent Origination. It is much more common to
find texts that explain other divisions or principles of the Dhamma,
which are part of the teaching on Dependent Origination.</p>
<p>Of these subsidiary teachings, perhaps the most frequently explained is
that on kamma.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> The reason for this is twofold: first, this is a
subject that is of vital interest to people, and second, an
understanding of kamma acts as a bridge to understanding Dependent
Origination. Indeed, a thorough explanation of kamma is one method for
making the task of explaining Dependent Origination somewhat easier.</p>
<p>Kamma is only one part of the process outlined in Dependent Origination,
which can be divided into three distinct cycles (<em>vaṭṭa</em>): defilement
(<em>kilesa</em>), kamma, and the fruits of kamma (<em>vipāka</em>). Dependent
Origination describes the entire sequence of performing volitional
actions (<em>kamma</em>) and receiving the consequences of those actions,
beginning with mental defilement, which is the source of kamma, and
culminating in the fruits of kamma (<em>vipāka</em>).</p>
<p>Having described the law of Dependent Origination, along with its
component factors, it may seem unnecessary to present a separate
explanation on kamma. One may claim that by understanding Dependent
Origination one also gains a clear understanding of kamma. {235}</p>
<p>The exposition of Dependent Origination focuses on phenomena in a pure,
absolute sense, and it provides a broad, comprehensive perspective of a
natural process. It does not emphasize one specific aspect of this
process. From a practical, everyday point of view, however, the part of
Dependent Origination that is most pronounced, directly pertains to
human behaviour, and is connected to human responsibility, is kamma.
From this perspective, one can say that kamma is the chief factor or
theme in Dependent Origination, and that the other factors simply
support investigation.</p>
<p>If one chooses this approach of analysis, Dependent Origination appears
in the form known as the ’law of kamma’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> And because there are many
other crucial factors related to this subject, in later texts the law of
kamma became the focus of study more than Dependent Origination. The
discussion of kamma deals with human behaviour, which is relatively
coarse, easily apparent, pertains to each immediate moment, and is
suitable as the starting point of study.</p>
<p>Moreover, the explanation of kamma can be done at many different levels.
One can explain it on a superficial level, describing cause and effect
to an ordinary lay audience; one can describe unique human circumstances
or activities in relation to kamma; or one can delve deeper into various
mental processes and explain kamma in the context of Dependent
Origination in its complete format.</p>
<p>It is for these reasons that a separate chapter has been dedicated to
the subject of kamma.</p>
<h2 id="basic-understanding-of-kamma"><a class="header" href="#basic-understanding-of-kamma">Basic Understanding of Kamma</a></h2>
<h3 id="kamma-as-a-law-of-nature"><a class="header" href="#kamma-as-a-law-of-nature">Kamma as a Law of Nature</a></h3>
<p>Buddhism teaches the truth that all things, both animate and inanimate,
both material and immaterial, both physical and mental, both internal
and external – that is, all conditioned things (<em>saṅkhata-dhamma</em>) –
exist according to causes and conditions; they are subject to mutual
conditionality. This is a law of nature. The Pali term for such a law of
nature is <em>niyāma</em>, which literally translates as ’fixed with
certainty’, ’mode of certainty’, ’rule of certainty’, or ’possessed of a
certain orderliness’. When specific causes and conditions are present,
things must proceed in a certain fashion.</p>
<p>Although this law of nature possesses the uniform characteristic of
mutual conditionality, it can be divided according to distinct
attributes, which express various patterns or aspects of
interrelationship and facilitate understanding. Based on a Buddhist line
of thinking, the commentaries describe five distinct laws of nature
(<em>niyāma</em>):<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> {236}</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Utu-niyāma</em>: law of energy; law of physical phenomena; physical
inorganic order; physical laws. This refers in particular to the
external environment and to alterations in physical matter. E.g.:
the weather and seasons; the fact that water, soil, and fertilizer
assist the growth of plants; the fact that lotus blossoms open
during the day and close up at night; the process of sneezing and
coughing; and the fact that all things are subject to corrosion and
decay. The focus by the commentaries here is on alterations induced
by heat and temperature.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Bīja-niyāma</em>: genetic laws; law of heredity; laws of reproduction;
physical organic order; biological laws. For example: the fact that
a specific plant will produce a specific fruit; a mango tree, for
instance, will always bear mangos.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Citta-niyāma</em>: psychic law; psychological laws; the laws of nature
pertaining to the functioning of the mind. For example: when a sense
stimulus contacts a sense base, cognition arises – the passive
state of mind (<em>bhavaṅga-citta</em>) is shaken and interrupted, there is
adverting of the mind (<em>āvajjana</em>), seeing, hearing, etc.,
acceptance (<em>sampaṭicchanna</em>), judgement (<em>santīraṇa</em>), etc.;
specific mind states may be accompanied by certain mental
concomitants (<em>cetasika</em>), whereas they may not be accompanied by
others.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Kamma-niyāma</em>: law of kamma; order of act and result; kammic laws;
moral laws. Natural laws pertaining to human behaviour. More
specifically, this refers to the process of intention and the
process of conceptualization, along with corresponding results of
these mental activities. For example: if one performs good actions,
one reaps good results; if one performs bad actions, one reaps bad
results.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dhamma-niyāma</em>: general law of cause and effect; order of the norm.
The law of nature pertaining to the interrelationship and mutual
conditionality of all things. For example: all things arise, are
sustained, and come to an end; it is the norm that human beings are
born, age, fall ill, and die; the normal lifespan of human beings at
this time era is roughly one hundred years; regardless of whether a
Buddha appears or not, it is part of the natural order that all
things are impermanent, <em>dukkha</em> (’subject to pressure’), and
nonself (<em>anattā</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The first four kinds of laws are in fact included in the fifth law, of
<em>dhamma-niyāma</em>, or one can say that they are divisions stemming from
this law. The definition of <em>dhamma-niyāma</em> encompasses all five kinds
of laws.</p>
<p>It is accurate to say that <em>dhamma-niyāma</em> is the chief, over-arching
law. In this case, some people may argue that if one is going to list
subsidiary laws in detail, then this list should be exhaustive. Why does
<em>dhamma-niyāma</em> remain along with these four subsidiary laws?</p>
<p>This can be answered with a simple analogy. When the entire human
population of a country is described, it may be divided say into
’government leaders, civil servants, merchants, and the general
populace’, or ’soldiers, police, civil servants, students, and the
general public’. Indeed, the terms ’general populace’ and ’general
public’ can refer to all individuals in society. Civil servants,
businessmen, soldiers, and students are all part of the general
population. The reason why these individuals may be distinguished from
the rest is because they have unique attributes, which the person making
the division wishes to emphasize, depending on his or her objective.
{237} On each occasion, the term ’general populace’, or a similar term,
is used to incorporate all the remaining individuals. The description of
the five natural laws can be viewed in the same way.</p>
<p>It is not our task here to examine whether other subsidiary laws should
be added to this list. The commentators selected these five in accord
with their own personal objectives. Moreover, the four subsidiary laws
are all incorporated in the factor of <em>dhamma-niyāma</em>, as just
explained. The point of interest here is to examine the true
significance and purpose of describing these five laws. Here are a few
points to consider:</p>
<p>First, this presentation provides a cogent view of the Buddhist way of
thought, describing the causal nature of everything in the world.
Although these five natural laws are distinguished from one another, the
primary emphasis is on mutual conditionality. This provides Dhamma
practitioners with a clearly defined principle for study, practice, and
understanding. They need not get caught up in the debate whether a
Creator God alters the natural flow of conditions, deviating from the
norm (unless one considers that God simply participates like other
conditions in the natural process).</p>
<p>Some people may object here and voice the opinion: without a Creator of
these laws, surely they could not have come into existence? One need not
get caught up in such questions, which only mislead and beguile people.
If one accepts that things exist according to their own nature, then
they must proceed in a certain way. Things have always proceeded in
conformity with their naturally dictated course. It is impossible for
them to proceed other than by mutual conditionality. Human beings
observe and understand these patterns and proceedings and refer to them
as natural laws. But whether they are distinguished and labelled as laws
or not, they exist all the same.</p>
<p>If one insists that someone must have created the laws of nature, then
one is faced with all sorts of troubling questions, like: ’What laws
dictate the actions of the Creator?’ and ’Who supervises the Creator?’
If in reply one claims that the Creator acts entirely by his own will,
then surely he is able to change the laws according to his whim. Some
day, he may alter the laws and create chaos for human beings. (Indeed,
if such a Creator of natural laws were to exist, and he is endowed with
compassion, he would change some laws in order to assist people. For
example, he would prevent the birth of handicapped, crippled, or
mentally impaired people.)</p>
<p>Second, when one divides the law of causality into subsidiary laws, it
is important not to attribute resultant phenomena as belonging
exclusively and categorically to one particular law. In fact, a single
result may arise from various causes or pertain to several laws in
combination. The fact that a lotus blooms only during the day, for
example, is not solely due to physical laws, but it is also due to
biological laws. The reason why a person is crying may be due to
psychological laws, say of being sad or elated, or it may occur due to
physical laws, say of getting smoke in the eyes. Someone may be sweating
due to physical laws, say because it is hot, or due to psychological and
kammic laws, say because he is afraid or recalls doing something wrong.
One may have a headache due to physical laws, say from muggy weather, a
stuffy room, or a lack of oxygen, or due to biological laws, say from
some defect in one’s body, or due to a combination of kammic laws and
psychic laws, say from anxiety and distress.</p>
<p>Third, and most important, the commentaries reveal how the law of kamma
is incorporated among these natural laws. {238}</p>
<p>In relation to human beings, <em>kamma-niyāma</em> is the most important of
these subsidiary laws, because it is a matter that affects everyone
directly. Human beings create kamma, which in turn determines their
destiny.</p>
<p>Modern people tend to divide the various forces in the world, by setting
nature in contrast with human beings. Following this division, kammic
laws belong to the scope of activities belonging to human beings. All of
the other subsidiary laws pertain to the sphere of nature.</p>
<p>Human beings are children of nature and are part of nature. But human
beings possess a unique capacity, of operating under moral or kammic
laws (<em>kamma-niyāma</em>). They form communities and invent things by way of
their volitional actions, almost creating a separate or parallel world
to that of the natural world.</p>
<p>Within the sphere of <em>kamma-niyāma</em>, the essence or core of kamma is
intention or volition. The law of kamma embraces the entire world of
intention or the world of creativity (and destruction) arising from
human beings’ ingenuity and innovation. <em>Kamma-niyāma</em> is the prevailing
law for human beings, regardless of whether they engage with other laws
or not. Indeed the very engagement with other laws depends on the law of
kamma.</p>
<p>The domain of volitional activity enables human beings to influence,
alter, and create things. More accurately, the participation by people
as one cause and condition within natural processes, to the extent that
they claim to be able to control or defeat nature, is dependent on the
law of kamma. People intentionally engage with other laws existing
within the sphere of nature, studying them and acting accordingly, or
deriving benefit from them. For this reason it is said that intention
determines and shapes the natural world. Furthermore, human intention
determines social interactions.</p>
<p>Besides shaping social interactions and behaviour in relation to
external things, the environment, and nature in general, human beings,
or more accurately, human intentions, have an effect on people
themselves, shaping their personalities and determining their fate.</p>
<p>The law of kamma encompasses the world of intention and all forms of
human creativity. It is the key factor in moulding each individual’s
life. It determines the course of human society and all human creative
and destructive activities. It is the basis on which people engage with
other laws, in order to control the natural world. For this reason,
great emphasis is given in Buddhism to the principle of kamma. The
Buddha said: ’The world exists according to kamma’ (<em>kammunā vattatī
loko</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> Kamma is thus a vital teaching in Buddhism.</p>
<p>The inclusion of <em>kamma-niyāma</em> in the group of five laws also indicates
that the law of kamma is simply one of several laws of nature.
Therefore, when a phenomenon occurs, or when someone experiences some
form of affliction, do not wrongly presume that it is solely due to
kamma.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> {239}</p>
<p>The Buddha’s quote (above), ’The world exists according to kamma,’
refers to the world of living beings, or to the world of human beings.
In other words, kamma governs and determines human society.</p>
<p>In sum, <em>kamma-niyāma</em> is a subsidiary law of nature, but it is the most
important law for human beings.</p>
<p>Apart from the five aforementioned laws, there exists another law
pertaining exclusively to human beings. It is not inherent in nature nor
is it directly connected to nature. This refers to those laws and
conventions set down by human beings themselves, in order to regulate
social behaviour and to promote social wellbeing. These social
prescriptions include policies, rules, pacts, legislation, traditions,
customs, disciplinary codes, etc. One may affix this sixth law as an
appendix to the five laws of nature mentioned above.</p>
<p>For the sake of convenience, one may designate a similar heading for
this group of social prescriptions to those laws of nature. Yet one
needs to be aware that this so-called ’sixth law’ lies outside and apart
from the group of five natural laws. There are many such headings to
choose from, including: <em>saṅgama-niyāma</em> (’social law’),
<em>saṅgama-niyamana</em> (’social practice’), <em>sammati-niyāma</em> (’conventional
law’), and <em>paññatti-niyāma</em> (’prescribed law’).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup></p>
<p>All four of these example headings make it clear that they are referring
to human laws rather than to natural laws. The first two terms refer to
social prescriptions. The third term refers to human conventions, to
those mutual agreements established in society. The fourth term refers
to human prescriptions and stipulations.</p>
<p>Here, in this text, the term ’conventional law’ (<em>sammati-niyāma</em>) is
used to refer to these human-made laws.</p>
<p>These social criteria and guidelines are fashioned by human beings. They
thus result from intentional actions and are related to the law of kamma
(<em>kamma-niyāma</em>). Yet they are supplementary to the law of kamma – they
do not constitute <em>kamma-niyāma</em> per se. They are not characterized by
mutual conditionality, nor are they aspects of natural truth in the way
that <em>kamma-niyāma</em> is. Because they overlap with the law of kamma, the
difference between the two tends to cause confusion, which in turn leads
to numerous debates and misunderstandings among people.</p>
<p>Because these two kinds of laws – the law of kamma (<em>kamma-niyāma</em>) and
conventional laws (<em>sammati-niyāma</em>) – have the greatest bearing on
human beings, it is important to point out their distinctive attributes.</p>
<p>First, <em>kamma-niyāma</em> is a law of nature dealing with human actions.
Conventional or social laws are established by people themselves. They
are related to the laws of nature only to the extent of being a result
of human intentional activity. Second, by way of the law of kamma, human
beings are accountable to their actions according to the dynamics of
nature. In the context of social laws, however, people must take
responsibility for their actions according to the decrees formulated by
people themselves.</p>
<p>These aspects of kamma will be discussed at more length in later
sections of this chapter, on questions of good and evil, and on matters
concerning the reaping of results stemming from intentional actions.
{240}</p>
<h3 id="definition-of-kamma"><a class="header" href="#definition-of-kamma">Definition of Kamma</a></h3>
<p>The term ’kamma’ literally means ’action’ or ’work’. In the context of
Dhamma teachings, however, the definition is restricted to mean ’actions
accompanied by intention’ or ’volitional actions’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup> Actions that
occur without intention are not classified as kamma in this context.</p>
<p>This definition of kamma, however, is very broad. To truly understand
the meaning of this term, its definition should be examined from
different angles or presented as different layers of meaning:</p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>A.</strong> A direct or precise examination of kamma reveals that its essence or
source is <em>cetanā</em>: intention, volition, deliberation; a
determination to act; the force or agent behind action. Intention is
chief, defining a person’s aims and purposes, and determining the
direction of all human actions. It initiates action and all forms of
conceptual and creative activity. It thus lies at the heart of
kamma. This is confirmed by the Buddha’s words: ’It is intention,
bhikkhus, that I call kamma’ (<em>cetanāhaṁ bhikkhave kammaṁ vadāmi</em>).
With intention, people then act by way of body, speech, and
mind.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>B.</strong> A broader perspective, taking into account other factors within the
dynamics of human activity, reveals that volitional action (’kamma’)
acts as the leading agent in creating the structure and pathway of
people’s lives. Kamma in this sense is equivalent to, or is referred
to as, ’volitional formations’ (<em>saṅkhāra</em>), which can also be
translated as ’fashioners of the mind’. This interpretation is found
for instance as one of the twelve links in Dependent Origination.
The term <em>saṅkhāra</em> refers to those mental factors or properties,
with intention (<em>cetanā</em>) as leader, that shape the mind as
wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral. They determine people’s
thoughts, speech, and physical actions, resulting in various kinds
of intentional action. In brief, <em>saṅkhāra</em> may be described as
’mental conceptualization’, yet even here intention is considered
the principal factor. Indeed, the Buddha occasionally defined
<em>saṅkhāra</em> simply as intention (<em>cetanā</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>C.</strong> An even wider perspective examines human beings as a whole,
conventionally referred to as individual persons, who engage with
the external world and have responsibility for their own actions.
Kamma in this context refers to thoughts, speech, and physical
actions – behaviour for which people must reap results, regardless
of whether these results occur in the immediate present or further
removed in the past and future.</p>
<p>This aspect of kamma is the most frequently mentioned in the texts,
appearing in teachings addressed to specific individuals. Such
teachings encourage people to take responsibility for their personal
actions and to perform wholesome deeds, as is confirmed by these
words of the Buddha: {241}</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, there are these two things that cause distress. Which two?
There is the case of the person who has not done what is good, has not
done what is wholesome, and has not performed meritorious deeds, which
counteract fear. Instead he has done what is evil, savage and cruel.
Thinking, ’I have not done what is wholesome; I have done what is
evil’, he is distressed.</p>
<p><em>It. 25-6.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>It is noteworthy that in the modern time this is the most common
interpretation of kamma, especially in reference to past actions.</p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li><strong>D.</strong> The broadest perspective is to examine general human activities
evident in human society. Here, kamma refers to earning a
livelihood, conducting one’s life, and engaging in various
activities, which result from intention and conceptualization. This
interpretation is described by the Buddha in the Vāseṭṭha Sutta:</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>You should know, Vāseṭṭha, that whoever makes his living among men by
cattle herding is called a farmer; he is not a brahmin … whoever
makes his living by varied crafts is called a craftsman … whoever
makes his living by trade is called a merchant … he who makes his
living by serving others is called a servant … whoever makes his
living by stealing is called a robber … whoever makes his living by
arrows and swords is called a soldier … whoever makes his living by
priestly craft is called a chaplain … whoever governs among men the
town and realm is called a king; he is not a brahmin…. One who has
no mental impurities lingering in the mind, who clings no more, he is
the one I call a brahmin….</p>
<p>One is not a brahmin by birth, nor by birth a non-brahmin. By action
(kamma) is one a brahmin, by action is one a non-brahmin. By their
acts (kamma: work, occupation, behaviour, lifestyle) are men farmers,
craftsmen, merchants, servants, robbers, soldiers, chaplains, and even
kings. This is how the wise see action as it really is, seers of
Dependent Origination, skilled in action and its results. Action makes
the world go round; action makes this generation of beings wander on.</p>
<p><em>M. II. 196; Sn. 117-23.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Similarly, in the Aggañña Sutta:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Then those beings who were elders met together and confided their
troubles with one another: ’Sirs, various evils have arisen among us,
giving rise to theft, accusations, lying, and the taking up of clubs
and batons. Let this not be so. Suppose we were to appoint (sammati:
’consent to’) a certain being who would admonish where admonishment
was due, censure those who deserved it, and banish those who deserved
banishment. And in return we would grant him a share of the grain.’</p>
<p>So they went to the one among them who was the most dignified, the
most attractive, the most charismatic and awe-inspiring, and asked him
to do this for them in return for a share of the grain, and he
agreed…. {242} Because he was chosen by the people, the first
regular title of Mahā Sammata (’Great Authority’) came to be.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup></p>
<p><em>D. III. 92-3.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Similarly, in the Cakkavatti Sutta:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, when the king did not furnish property to the needy, poverty
became rife; from the growth of poverty, stealing increased; from the
increase of theft, the use of weapons increased; from the increased
use of weapons, the taking of life increased – and from the increase
of killing, lying increased … divisive speech … adultery …
offensive speech and trivial talk … covetousness and ill-will …
wrong view increased.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<p><em>D. III. 70-71.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Although one may define kamma into these four distinct categories, one
should remember that in each case intention (<em>cetanā</em>) lies at the heart
of such actions. Intention leads people to engage with things and
determines the manner of such engagement. It determines how people
respond to things and how they alter or improve things. It determines
whether one makes oneself a channel for expressing unwholesome qualities
of greed, hatred, and delusion, or instead for expressing wholesome
qualities in order to foster true wellbeing. All this is under the power
of intention.</p>
<p>Actions free from intention do not effect results within the domain of
the law of kamma – they are not classified as kamma. Rather, they are
matters pertaining to other laws of nature, in particular to physical
laws (<em>utu-niyāma</em>). They are seen as equivalent to landslides or to a
branch falling from a tree.</p>
<h3 id="kinds-of-kamma"><a class="header" href="#kinds-of-kamma">Kinds of Kamma</a></h3>
<p>From the perspective of its quality or source, kamma is divided into two
factors:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Unwholesome actions (<em>akusala-kamma</em>): unskilful actions; bad
actions. This refers to those actions stemming from unwholesome
roots, i.e. greed (<em>lobha</em>), hatred (<em>dosa</em>), and delusion (<em>moha</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Wholesome actions (<em>kusala-kamma</em>): skilful actions; good actions.
This refers to those actions stemming from wholesome roots, i.e.
non-greed (<em>alobha</em>), non-hatred (<em>adosa</em>), and non-delusion
(<em>amoha</em>). {243}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>If one divides kamma according to the ’doorway’ (<em>dvāra</em>) by which
actions are performed – the pathways of expression – the
classification is threefold:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Physical actions (<em>kāya-kamma</em>): actions by way of the body.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Verbal actions (<em>vacī-kamma</em>): actions by way of speech.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Mental actions (<em>mano-kamma</em>): actions by way of the mind.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Combining the two aforementioned classifications results in six kinds of
kamma: unwholesome physical, verbal, and mental actions, and wholesome
physical, verbal, and mental actions.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
<p>Another classification divides kamma into four factors according to the
relationship actions have to their results (<em>vipāka</em>):<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Dark actions with dark results: this refers to physical, verbal, and
mental volitional formations (<em>kāya-saṅkhāra</em>, <em>vacī-saṅkhāra</em>, and
<em>mano-saṅkhāra</em>) that are harmful and oppressive. Basic examples
include: injuring other creatures (<em>pāṇātipāta</em>), stealing
(<em>adinnādāna</em>), sexual misconduct (<em>kāmesu-micchācāra</em>), lying
(<em>musāvādā</em>), and heedlessly indulging in alcoholic beverages.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Bright actions with bright results: this refers to physical, verbal,
and mental volitional formations that are neither harmful nor
oppressive. An example is upholding the ten wholesome courses of
action (<em>kusala-kammapathā</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Bright and dark actions with bright and dark results: this refers to
physical, verbal, and mental volitional formations that are partly
harmful and partly non-harmful. Most human behaviour falls under
this category.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Neither bright-nor-dark actions with neither bright-nor-dark
results: this refers to those actions performed in order to bring an
end to kamma, i.e. intention aimed at abandoning the three
aforementioned kinds of kamma. In terms of spiritual qualities, this
refers to the seven factors of enlightenment (<em>bojjhaṅga</em>) or to the
Noble Eightfold Path.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The commentaries contain another classification of kamma, into twelve
factors, i.e. into three groups of four factors. This classification was
favoured by later generations of Buddhist scholars, as is seen by the
description in the Visuddhimagga. To prevent confusion, however, it will
not be presented here.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup></p>
<p>Of the three kinds of kamma mentioned above, i.e. physical, verbal, and
mental kamma, mental kamma is of the greatest importance and has the
most widespread and major consequences, as confirmed by the Buddha:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Of these three kinds of action, Tapassī, thus analyzed and
distinguished, I describe mental action as the most harmful in the
performance of evil action, in the perpetration of evil action, and
not bodily action or verbal action.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 373.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Mental kamma is the most important because it is the point of origin.
People think before they speak or act; they think before they express
themselves by way of speech or physical actions. Verbal kamma and
physical kamma are thus extensions of mental kamma. Moreover, mental
kamma encompasses beliefs, opinions, doctrines, ways of thinking, and
values, which are collectively referred to as ’view’ (<em>diṭṭhi</em>).</p>
<p>View (<em>diṭṭhi</em>) determines people’s general conduct and lifestyle, as
well as the direction of society. People’s thoughts, speech, teachings,
instructions, actions, etc. all spring from their beliefs, viewpoints,
and values. {244} If people harbour wrong view (<em>micchā-diṭṭhi</em>), their
thoughts, speech, and actions will also be incorrect (<em>micchā</em>); if they
harbour right view (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>), their thoughts, speech, and actions
will be correct (<em>sammā</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup> For example, if a society believes that
material affluence is of utmost value and truly desirable, people will
pursue material wealth, and they will use wealth as the yardstick for
measuring progress, prestige, and dignity. People’s lifestyles and the
direction of society will follow a particular mode or format. Another
society, which considers spiritual peace and happiness to be the highest
goal will follow another mode of behaviour.</p>
<p>There are many teachings by the Buddha expressing the significance of
wrong view and right view, for example:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, I do not see even a single thing on account of which unarisen
unwholesome states arise and arisen unwholesome states increase and
expand so much as wrong view….</p>
<p>Monks, I do not see even a single thing on account of which unarisen
wholesome states arise and arisen wholesome states increase and expand
so much as right view.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 30.</em></p>
<p>Monks, for a person of wrong view, whatever bodily kamma, verbal
kamma, and mental kamma he maintains and undertakes in accord with
that view, and whatever his intention, yearning, inclination, and
volitional activities, they all lead to what is unwished for,
undesired, and disagreeable, to harm and suffering. For what reason?
Because the view is bad. Suppose a seed of neem, snake gourd, or
bitter gourd were planted in moist soil. Whatever nutrients it takes
up from the soil and from the water would all lead to its bitter,
pungent, and distasteful flavour. For what reason? Because the seed is
bad….</p>
<p>Monks, for a person of right view, whatever bodily kamma, verbal
kamma, and mental kamma he maintains and undertakes in accord with
that view, and whatever his intention, yearning, inclination, and
volitional activities, they all lead to what is wished for, desired,
and agreeable, to wellbeing and happiness. For what reason? Because
the view is good. Suppose a seed of sugarcane, hulled wheat, or gold
apple were planted in moist soil. Whatever nutrients it takes up from
the soil and from the water would all lead to its sweet, agreeable,
and delectable flavour. For what reason? Because the seed is good.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 32; cf.: A. V. 212.</em></p>
<p>Monks, there is one person who arises in the world for the harm of
many people, for the unhappiness of many people, for the ruin, harm,
and suffering of many people, of devas and human beings. Who is that
one person? It is one who holds wrong view and has a perverted
perspective. He draws many people away from the true Dhamma and
establishes them in an untrue Dhamma…. {245}</p>
<p>Monks, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of
many people, for the happiness of many people, for the good, welfare,
and happiness of many people, of devas and human beings. Who is that
one person? It is one who holds right view and has a correct
perspective. He draws many people away from an untrue Dhamma and
establishes them in the true Dhamma….</p>
<p>Monks, I do not see even a single thing so harmful as wrong view.
Wrong view is the worst of things that are harmful.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup></p>
<p><em>A. I. 33.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Mind is chief and master of all states; they are all accomplished by
way of mind. If one speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering will
follow, even as the wheel of the cart follows the draught-ox…. If
one speaks or acts with a pure mind, happiness will follow, even as
one’s radiance that never leaves.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup></p>
<p><em>Dh. verses 1 and 2.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h2 id="criteria-for-good-and-evil"><a class="header" href="#criteria-for-good-and-evil">Criteria for Good and Evil</a></h2>
<h3 id="good-and-evil"><a class="header" href="#good-and-evil">Good and Evil</a></h3>
<p>The subject of kamma is directly related to the subject of good and
evil. To understand kamma more clearly it is thus important to touch
upon the subject of good and evil.</p>
<p>The concept of good and evil (or good and bad) poses a difficulty on
account of the meanings of these words in English and the criteria for
evaluation.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup> What determines something to be ’good’ or ’evil’?</p>
<p>This dilemma, however, is primarily confined to English. The Pali terms
dealing with these concepts are clearly defined, as will be discussed
below.</p>
<p>The English word ’good’, in particular, has a very broad range of
meaning. Someone who behaves virtuously is called a ’good person’; when
people eat delicious, agreeable food, they call the food or the
restaurant where it is served ’good’; an engine that runs efficiently or
smoothly is called ’good’; a wooden mallet that serves its purpose is
called ’good’; a movie that is fun and enjoyable is called ’good’; a
painting beautiful from an artistic point of view is called ’good’, or
if it fetches a high price it is called ’good’; likewise, a successful,
well-managed school with clever students is called ’good’. The same
table may be called ’good’ by three different people, but for various
reasons. One person says it is good because he considers it beautifully
crafted; the second says it is good because it serves his purpose for
writing; and the third says it is good because he can sell it for a high
profit.</p>
<p>Similarly, the same object called good by one person may be called bad
by others. Some things seen from one perspective are good, while seen
from another perspective are bad. Some behaviour in one country or
society may be considered good, while in other countries or societies it
is considered bad. There are no conclusive answers or completely clear
guidelines. One may have to distinguish between ’morally good’,
’aesthetically good’, and ’economically good’. {246}</p>
<p>The reason for this confusion is that these are matters having to do
with a sense of value. The terms ’good’ and ’bad’ can be used across the
entire spectrum when referring to a sense of value. Therefore, these
terms’ definitions are so broad and diverse.</p>
<p>To avoid this confusion, we need not use these English terms ’good’ and
’bad’ in this context. This way we need not discuss the relative merits
or value of things as they appear to different people.</p>
<p>There are a few points to bear in mind regarding this subject of good
and evil in relation to kamma:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>In this context of good and evil, the specific Pali terms <em>kusala</em>
(’wholesome’) and <em>akusala</em> (’unwholesome’) are used, respectively.
These two terms have clearly prescribed definitions and principles
for evaluation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The analysis of good and evil here is directly related to the law of
kamma (<em>kamma-niyāma</em>). In the study of Buddhist ethics, the
concepts of wholesomeness and unwholesomeness are thus viewed as
natural phenomena (<em>sabhāva</em>). They are not viewed in light of a
relative sense of value.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup> The study of relative value pertains
to the level of conventional truth (<em>sammati-niyāma</em>) or of social
prescriptions (<em>saṅgama-paññatti</em>), whose perimeters are clearly
distinguished from the law of kamma (<em>kamma-niyāma</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The law of kamma is connected to other laws. The connections of
particular importance include: internally, i.e. within an individual
person, the law of kamma (<em>kamma-niyāma</em>) is based on psychological
laws (<em>citta-niyāma</em>); and externally, the law of nature is
connected to conventional laws (<em>sammati-niyāma</em>). In regard to this
latter relationship, it is important to clearly separate the
boundaries between the law of kamma and conventional laws, although
there is a link between them.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="the-wholesome-and-the-unwholesome"><a class="header" href="#the-wholesome-and-the-unwholesome">The Wholesome and the Unwholesome</a></h3>
<p>Although the Pali terms <em>kusala</em> and <em>akusala</em> are frequently translated
as ’good’ and ’bad’ respectively, this is not a truly accurate
definition. Some things may be wholesome (<em>kusala</em>) yet in English they
may not be called ’good’; likewise, some things may be unwholesome
(<em>akusala</em>) but in English they may not be referred to as ’bad’.</p>
<p>Wholesomeness and unwholesomeness arise in the mind, and they begin by
producing effects on the mind and by influencing a person’s personality;
these effects are then expressed outwardly. The meaning of these two
terms – <em>kusala</em> and <em>akusala</em> – thus focuses on the essential basis
for wholesome and unwholesome action: the principal emphasis is on the
internal workings of the mind.</p>
<p>The term <em>kusala</em> literally means ’skilful’, ’skilled’, ’proficient’,
’dextrous’, ’easeful’, ’favourable’, ’supportive’, ’appropriate’,
’virtuous’, ’meritorious’, ’the elimination of base, repellent
qualities’, or ’the dispelling of illness’.</p>
<p>The term <em>akusala</em> refers to those conditions that are foes of <em>kusala</em>
or stand in opposition to <em>kusala</em>, for example a lack of skill or a
lack of ease.</p>
<p>In the scriptures, there are four principal definitions for the term
<em>kusala</em>:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Ārogya</em>: freedom from illness: the state of mind free from illness;
a state of mental health. This refers to those conditions and
factors that are conducive to mental health and help to ward off
mental illness. When these factors are present, the mind is not
distressed, agitated, impaired, or weak; rather, it is robust,
nimble, pliable, and at ease.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Anavajja</em>: harmless; blameless. This refers to a mind that is
non-defective, non-corrupted, unblemished, and undisturbed. The mind
is complete, pure, clear, and bright. {247}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Kosalla-sambhūta</em>: springing from wisdom; stemming from
intelligence. The mind is endowed with wisdom or with those
attributes resulting from understanding. The mind is luminous,
seeing into the truth. This is consistent with the principle stating
that wholesome qualities have wise reflection (<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>)
as proximate cause (<em>padaṭṭhāna</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Sukha-vipāka</em>: possessing happiness as fruition; leading to
happiness. When wholesome qualities are present in the mind,
happiness and contentment arise immediately; one need not wait for a
reward or compensation from outside. Similarly, when the body is
strong and healthy (<em>aroga</em>), when one is free of all harmful,
impure, or toxic elements (<em>anavajja</em>), and one has the knowledge
that one is in a safe and suitable place (<em>kosalla-sambhūta</em>),
although one may not experience any exceptional states of mind, one
is inherently happy and at ease.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Some texts mention three more definitions for <em>kusala</em>: ’intelligent’
(<em>cheka</em>; ’clever’); ’safe’ (<em>khema</em>; ’secure’); and ’free from anxiety’
(<em>niddaratha</em>). These three definitions, however, are already included
in the four definitions mentioned above.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup> Note also that the third
definition above – <em>kosalla-sambhūta</em> – is the primary definition for
<em>kusala</em>.</p>
<p>The meaning of <em>akusala</em> can be interpreted as opposite to those
definitions of <em>kusala</em> above. This term refers to an unsound state of
mind, to a lack of mental health. Unwholesome qualities are detrimental,
reproachable, and faulty; they stem from ignorance (<em>avijjā</em>) and bear
fruit as suffering. In sum, they weaken and impair the mind. This stands
in contrast to wholesome qualities, which support and strengthen the
mind.</p>
<p>To clarify this matter, one can describe the various attributes of a
mind that is wholesome, healthy, pure, etc. Wholesome qualities
(<em>kusala-dhamma</em>) engender these attributes or these states of mind.
Conversely, unwholesome qualities (<em>akusala-dhamma</em>) impair or corrupt
the mind.</p>
<p>The following wholesome attributes are drawn from various passages in
the Pali Canon. They range from attributes present in the minds of
ordinary human beings, up to those attributes present in the minds of
fully awakened beings – the arahants.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em><strong>Group #1:</strong> <em>passaddha</em>: relaxed, tranquil, calm; <em>lahu</em>:
lightness of mind; <em>mudu</em>: gentle, tender, mild; <em>kamañña</em>: wieldy,
ready for work; <em>paguṇa</em>: adroit; <em>uju</em>: upright, not crooked, not
distorted.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn23-1"><a href="#fn-fn23">23</a></sup></em></p>
<p><strong>Group #2:</strong> <em>mudu</em>: gentle, mild; <em>kammanīya</em>: wieldy, suitable for
work; <em>pabhas-sara</em>: brilliant, clear; <em>apabhaṅgu</em>: robust, not frail;
<em>samāhita</em>: steadfast; <em>anāvaraṇa</em>: unimpeded, unconfined;
<em>anivaraṇa</em>: unhindered, unobstructed, unconstrained;
<em>anupakkiliṭṭha</em>: untarnished, unmuddied; <em>anajjhārūḷha</em>:
unconstricted, unoppressed; <em>avighāta</em>: untroubled, unafflicted.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn24-1"><a href="#fn-fn24">24</a></sup>
{248}</p>
<p><strong>Group #3:</strong> <em>samāhita</em>: steadfast, balanced, even; <em>parisuddha</em>:
pure, impeccable; <em>pariyodāta</em>: pristine, bright; <em>anaṅgaṇa</em>:
unblemished, clear; <em>vigatūpakkilesa</em>: unstained; <em>mudubhūta</em>: gentle,
tender; <em>kammanīya</em>: wieldy; <em>ṭhita</em> and <em>āneñjappatta</em>: steady,
grounded, composed, stable, unshakeable, non-wavering.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn25-1"><a href="#fn-fn25">25</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The next two groups primarily consist of attributes belonging to
arahants:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em><strong>Group #4:</strong> <em>akiñcana</em>: nothing lingering in the mind, free from
latent anxiety; <em>santa</em>: peaceful, satisfied; <em>asoka</em>: sorrowless;
<em>viraja</em>: free from dust; <em>khema</em>: safe, secure, free from danger;
<em>nicchāta</em>: sated, free from hankering; <em>sītabhūta</em>: cooled, deeply at
peace; <em>nibbuta</em>: cooled, calmed; <em>serī</em>: released, able to wander
freely; <em>sayaṁvasī</em>: self-mastery, self-reliant; <em>sukhī</em>: happy.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn26-1"><a href="#fn-fn26">26</a></sup></em></p>
<p><strong>Group #5:</strong> <em>anallīna</em>: unentangled, unobsessed; <em>anajjhosita</em>:
unintimidated; <em>anūpalitta</em>: unsoiled, unpolluted; <em>anissita</em>:
independent, not dependent on anything; <em>visaññuta</em>: unfettered;
<em>vippamutta</em>: liberated; <em>vimariyādikata-citta</em>: with an unbounded,
limitless mind.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn27-1"><a href="#fn-fn27">27</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>For ease of memory, these attributes may be divided into various main
headings:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Stability: e.g.: steadfast, steady, even, unshakeable, unwavering,
non-agitated, non-vacillating.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Purity: e.g.: untainted, unmuddied, unstained, unblemished, clear,
bright, brilliant.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Freedom: e.g.: unentangled, unconfined, unrestricted, unbound,
unafflicted, expansive.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Suitability for work: e.g.: gentle, soft, light, at ease, adroit,
supple, robust, upright, not frail, unbiased, not crooked,
non-deviating, not distorted.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Peace: e.g.: relaxed, calm, content, not stressed, not lacking, not
hankering, not agitated, untroubled, undisturbed.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>When one is familiar with the attributes of a healthy, unblemished mind,
one can examine those qualities that are defined as either wholesome or
unwholesome. How do wholesome qualities support and strengthen the mind,
and how to unwholesome qualities plague and spoil, weaken and afflict
the mind? {249}</p>
<p>Here are examples of wholesome qualities: <em>sati</em>: mindfulness, the
ability to sustain attention; <em>mettā</em>: lovingkindness, goodwill, the
wish for others to be happy; <em>alobha</em>: non-greed, absence of craving,
the inclination to be generous; <em>paññā</em>: wisdom, penetrative insight;
<em>passaddhi</em>: tranquillity, physical repose and mental calm, an absence
of stress and restlessness; <em>kusala-chanda</em>: wholesome enthusiasm, love
of goodness, aspiration for truth, a wish to harmonize with causes and
conditions; <em>muditā</em>: delight and rejoicing when others succeed or are
happy.</p>
<p>Here are examples of unwholesome qualities: <em>kāma-chanda</em>: greed,
covetousness, hankering (see
Note <a href="#note-two-desires">Wholesome and Unwholesome Desire</a>); <em>byāpāda</em>: ill-will, indignation,
resentment; <em>thīna-middha</em>: despondency, discouragement, apathy,
listlessness, lethargy; <em>uddhacca-kukkucca</em>: restlessness, mental
agitation, mental disturbance, moodiness, worry, anxiety; <em>vicikicchā</em>:
doubt, indecisiveness; <em>kodha</em>: anger; <em>issā</em>: envy; <em>macchariya</em>:
stinginess, jealousy, a wish to obstruct others.</p>