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<h1 id="path-factors-of-concentration"><a class="header" href="#path-factors-of-concentration">Path Factors of Concentration</a></h1>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-18-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-18-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
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<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-18-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
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<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>The Buddha classified the eight Path factors (the Noble Eightfold Path)
into three groups or ’aggregates’ (<em>khandha</em>), namely: the morality
group (<em>sīla-khandha</em>), the concentration group (<em>samādhi-khandha</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup>
and the wisdom group (<em>paññā-khandha</em>), or simply: virtuous conduct
(<em>sīla</em>), concentration (<em>samādhi</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>). Here, right
effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration are included in the
concentration group.</p>
<p>As a group, these three factors are also referred to as ’training in
higher mind’ (<em>adhicitta-sikkhā</em>), which can be defined as: training the
mind, cultivating spiritual qualities, generating happiness, developing
the state of one’s mind, and gaining proficiency at concentration. The
essence of training in higher mind is to develop and enhance the quality
and potential of the mind, which supports living a virtuous life and is
conducive to applying wisdom in the optimal way.</p>
<p>On the highest level, ’higher mind’ (<em>adhicitta</em>) or concentration
refers to methods of developing tranquillity (<em>samatha</em>) and to various
methods of tranquillity meditation. But in a general, comprehensive
sense, higher mind or concentration encompasses all the methods and
means to induce calm in people’s minds, to make people be steadfast in
virtue, to rouse enthusiasm, and to generate perseverance in developing
goodness.</p>
<h2 id="right-effort"><a class="header" href="#right-effort">Right Effort</a></h2>
<p>Right effort (<em>sammā-vāyāma</em>) is the sixth factor of the Eightfold Path.
The suttas define right effort as follows:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, what is right effort? Here, a monk in this Dhamma and
Discipline:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Generates wholesome enthusiasm, exerts effort, rouses energy,
strives, and determines to prevent unarisen evil, unwholesome
qualities from arising.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Generates wholesome enthusiasm, exerts effort, rouses energy,
strives, and determines to abandon arisen evil, unwholesome
qualities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Generates wholesome enthusiasm, exerts effort, rouses energy,
strives, and determines to foster unarisen wholesome qualities to
come into being.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Generates wholesome enthusiasm, exerts effort, rouses energy,
strives, and determines for the continuance, non-disappearance,
increase, completion, thriving, and fulfilment of arisen wholesome
qualities.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><em>D. II. 311; M. I. 62; M. III. 251-2; Vbh. 105, 235.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Abhidhamma offers an additional definition:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>What is right effort? The rousing of energy (viriyārambha) in the
mind; progress, perseverance, determination, effort, exertion,
persistence, steadfastness, constancy; steady progress, not forsaking
enthusiasm, not neglecting work, shouldering responsibility; energy,
the faculty of energy, the power of energy, balanced effort; the
enlightenment factor of energy, which is a factor of the Path,
connected to the Path. This is called right effort.</p>
<p><em>Vbh. 107, 237.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>In these definitions note the importance of wholesome enthusiasm
(<em>chanda</em>; ’wholesome desire’), which is the forerunner of right effort
and is the essence of all forms of honourable perseverance. {755}</p>
<p>The definition in the suttas above, in which right effort is divided
into four factors, is also called ’right endeavour’
(<em>sammappadhāna</em>)<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> or the four endeavours (<em>padhāna</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> and each
of these four endeavours has a specific name, as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Saṁvara-padhāna</em>: the endeavour to prevent or to be on guard
against (unarisen unwholesome qualities).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Pahāna-padhāna</em>: the endeavour to abandon or to eliminate (arisen
unwholesome qualities).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Bhāvanā-padhāna</em>: the endeavour to cultivate or to develop
(unarisen wholesome qualities).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Anurakkhanā-padhāna</em>: the endeavour to protect, safeguard, or
increase (arisen wholesome qualities).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>These four efforts are sometimes explained by presenting examples:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Saṁvara-padhāna</em>: when a monk sees a material form with the eye, he
does not grasp at its signs and features (he is not captivated by
its dominant and minor attributes). He practises in order to
restrain the sense faculties, which when unrestrained are the cause
for the unwholesome mind states of covetousness and aversion to
overwhelm the mind. He protects the eye faculty, he is restrained in
regard to the eye faculty (the same for hearing sounds, smelling
odours, savouring tastes, contacting tactile objects by way of the
body, and cognizing mental objects by way of the mind).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Pahāna-padhāna</em>: a monk does not permit thoughts of sensuality,
thoughts of ill-will, thoughts of cruelty, and evil, unwholesome
states that have arisen to be sustained; he abandons them, decreases
them, brings them to destruction, makes them without remainder.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Bhāvanā-padhāna</em>: a monk develops the seven factors of
enlightenment, which rely on seclusion, dispassion, and cessation,
and incline towards liberation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Anurakkhanā-padhāna</em>: a monk nurtures the ’concentrative signs’
(<em>samādhi-nimitta</em>), that is, the six ’perceptions’ (<em>saññā</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Effort is a vital quality in Buddhism, which is evident from the fact
that right effort is one of three factors (along with right view and
right mindfulness) which is required as a constant support for the other
factors of the Eightfold Path.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup> In almost every group of spiritual
factors found in the scriptures effort is included, represented by
different Pali terms.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup> The following passages by the Buddha confirm
the importance of effort:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>This Dhamma is for the energetic, not for the indolent.</p>
<p><em>A. IV. 233.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, I know clearly the value of two things:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>To not be content with wholesome states of mind so far achieved.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To be unremitting in putting forth effort.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Therefore, you should practise accordingly: ’May I put forth
unremitting effort. Let only my skin, sinews and bones remain; let the
flesh in my body dry up; yet there shall be no ceasing of energy till
I have attained whatever can be won by manly strength, manly energy,
manly effort.’ Thus should you train yourselves. {756}</p>
<p><em>A. I. 50.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Among other reasons, the repeated emphasis on effort stems from the
primary Buddhist principle that the truth is an aspect of nature or
exists as laws of nature. The role of the Buddha (the ’Teacher’ –
<em>satthā</em>) is to discover this truth and then reveal it to others. The
fruits of spiritual practice occur in an impartial way according to
natural causes and conditions; they are not generated by the Teacher.
Therefore, people must make effort and produce results by their own
strength and energy; they should not expect or appeal for desired
results without putting forth effort, as is confirmed by this verse in
the Dhammapada:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>The Awakened Ones can but point the way;<br />
You must make the effort yourselves.</p>
<p><em>Tumhehi kiccaṁ ātappaṁ akkhātāro tathāgatā.</em></p>
<p><em>Dh. verse 276.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Putting forth effort is similar to developing other spiritual qualities;
all these qualities must be cultivated in an integrated manner, not in
isolation. When effort has been properly prepared and integrated in the
mind, one is then ready to express it as concrete actions in the
external world. It is not a matter of simply generating a wish to make
effort and then wilfully applying physical force in one’s exertions,
which may lead to excessive straining and have very harmful
consequences.</p>
<p>The making of effort must thus be in harmony with other spiritual
qualities, most notably mindfulness and clear comprehension. One acts
with understanding and awareness. One makes a balanced effort, by being
neither too tight nor too slack, as is described in this story from the
suttas:</p>
<p>At one time Ven. Soṇa was residing in the Sītavana grove near Rājagaha.
He put forth extreme effort in his practice, doing walking meditation
(<em>caṅkamana</em>) until the soles of both his feet were blistered and
bleeding, but without success. He thus had this thought:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>I am one of the most energetic disciples of the Blessed One, yet my
mind has not attained liberation from the taints nor is it free from
clinging. Now my family is wealthy, and I can utilize my wealth and do
meritorious deeds. Let me then give up the training, and utilize my
wealth and do meritorious deeds.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Buddha knew what Soṇa was thinking and came to speak with him:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>’Soṇa, weren’t you just now thinking of giving up the training…?’</p>
<p>’Yes, Lord.’</p>
<p>’Tell me, Soṇa, when in earlier days you were a layman, were you not
skilled in playing the lute?’ – ’Yes, Lord.’</p>
<p>’And, Soṇa, when the strings of your lute were too taut, was your lute
well tuned and easy to play?’ – ’No, Lord.’</p>
<p>’And when the strings of your lute were too loose, was your lute well
tuned and easy to play?’ – ’No, Lord.’ {757}</p>
<p>’But, Soṇa, when the strings of your lute were neither too taut nor
too loose, but adjusted to an even pitch, was your lute then well
tuned and easy to play?’ – ’Yes, Lord.’</p>
<p>’Similarly, Soṇa, if energy is applied too forcefully it will lead to
restlessness, and if energy is too lax it will lead to inertia.
Therefore, Soṇa, keep your energy in balance, understand a balance of
the spiritual faculties,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup> and hold a mental sign (nimitta) of this
balance.’</p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 181-2; A. III. 374-5.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Although right effort as one of the Path factors is an internal quality,
for it to be effective and to be developed, it must rely on an
interaction with the outside world. This includes how one responds to
various sense impressions, and generally how one behaves, lives one’s
life, and engages in various activities. It also includes how one’s
environment affects one’s effort and the cultivation of related
spiritual factors, in both favourable and adverse ways.</p>
<p>The effort (referred to as <em>padhāna</em> – ’endeavour’) made in Dhamma
practice, which manifests as external action and is given systematic
form, is connected to and dependent on particular environmental factors
like the physical body, natural surroundings, and society. The Buddhist
teachings thus emphasize the importance of external environmental
factors for fostering a virtuous life and realizing the highest goal of
Buddhism:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, there are these five attributes of one who puts forth effort
(<em>padhāniyaṅga</em>). What five? Here:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>A monk has faith, he has confidence in the Tathāgata’s awakening
thus: ’For these reasons, the Blessed One is accomplished, fully
enlightened … is one who elucidates and disseminates the
Dhamma.’</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>He is not encumbered by illness and affliction; he possesses a
balanced metabolism for digesting food that is neither too cool
nor too warm, but medium and suitable for striving.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>He is not boastful or deceptive; he shows himself as he actually
is to the Teacher and to his discreet companions in the holy life.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>He is energetic in abandoning unwholesome states and in fulfilling
wholesome states, steadfast, persevering, constant, not neglectful
in cultivating wholesome states.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>He is wise; he possesses wisdom regarding rise and dissolution
that is noble and penetrative and leads to the complete
destruction of suffering. {758}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><em>D. III. 277; M. II. 95; A. III. 65; A. V. 15.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, there are these five unfavourable occasions for striving. What
five? Here:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>A monk is old, overcome by old age.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A monk is ill, overcome by illness.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There is a famine, crops are bad, food is hard to come by and it
is not easy to keep oneself going by receiving almsfood.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Danger is prevalent, there is turmoil with bandits from the
forests pillaging the land, and the countryfolk mount their carts
and flee.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There is a schism in the sangha; when the sangha is divided there
is mutual condemnation, accusation, denigration, and rejection;
then those who are without faith do not develop faith and some of
the faithful become otherwise.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Monks, there are these five favourable occasions for striving. What
five?:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>A monk is young, youthful, black-haired and endowed with the good
fortune of youth, the prime of life.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>He is not encumbered by illness and affliction….</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A time when food is plentiful, crops are good, food is readily
available and it is easy to keep oneself going by receiving
almsfood.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A time when people dwell in harmony, as milk and water, cherish
one another, do not quarrel, but look upon one another with
friendly eye.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A time when the sangha dwells at ease – harmoniously, with mutual
appreciation, without disputes, with a single recitation; when the
sangha dwells in harmony, there is no mutual condemnation,
accusation, denigration, and rejection; then those who are without
faith develop faith and the faithful grow in faith.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><em>A. III. 66.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h2 id="3-right-mindfulness"><a class="header" href="#3-right-mindfulness">3. Right Mindfulness</a></h2>
<h3 id="definition"><a class="header" href="#definition">Definition</a></h3>
<p>Right mindfulness (<em>sammā-sati</em>) is the second factor in the group
classified as <em>samādhi</em> or as ’training in higher mind’
(<em>adhicitta-sikkhā</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup> The suttas define right mindfulness as
follows:</p>
<p>Monks, what is right mindfulness? This is called right mindfulness: a
monk in this Dhamma and Discipline:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Discerns the body in the body, ardent, fully aware, and mindful,
free from covetousness and grief for the world.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Discerns feelings in feelings, ardent, fully aware, and mindful,
free from covetousness and grief for the world.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Discerns the mind in mind, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, free
from covetousness and grief for the world.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Discerns mind objects in mind objects, ardent, fully aware, and
mindful, free from covetousness and grief for the world.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> {759}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The Abhidhamma provides another definition:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>What is right mindfulness? Mindfulness is constant recollection and
reflection; [or] mindfulness is the state of recollection,
remembering, non-fading, non-forgetting. Mindfulness is the faculty of
mindfulness, the power of mindfulness, balanced awareness, the
enlightenment factor of mindfulness, which is a factor of the Path,
connected to the Path. This is called right mindfulness.</p>
<p><em>Vbh. 107, 237.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The sutta definition of right mindfulness above is part of the teaching
on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. Each of the four factors in this
teaching has an abbreviated name:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Kāyānupassanā</em> (contemplation of the body; observing the nature of
the body).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vedanānupassanā</em> (contemplation of feelings; observing the nature
of feelings).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Cittānupassanā</em> (contemplation of mind; observing the nature of
mind).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dhammānupassanā</em> (contemplation of mind objects; observing the
nature of mind objects). (See
Note <a href="#note-dhammanupassana">Meaning of Dhammānupassanā</a>)</p>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Meaning of Dhammānupassanā</span><a id="note-dhammanupassana"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Trans.: there appears to be a fair deal of confusion among Buddhists
as to the meaning of <em>dhammānupassanā</em>. (Translations of this term
range from: ’contemplation of mind objects’, ’contemplation of the
nature of things’, ’contemplation of phenomena’, ’contemplation of
true nature’, and ’contemplation of psychological qualities’.) I
therefore went to visit the venerable author to try and clarify some
doubts over this matter. Ven. Phra Payutto’s response in a nutshell
was as follows:</p>
<p>Basically, the term <em>dhammānupassanā</em> does refer to ’mind objects’ –
to thoughts and reflections. The reason why the Buddha chose examples
of the formal teachings (e.g. the seven factors of enlightenment, the
five hindrances, etc.) is because these particular kinds of
reflections are conducive to awakening. The fourth <em>satipaṭṭhāna</em> is
linked with the third: for example, one may have insight into the fact
that the mind is subject to greed (<em>cittānupassanā</em>) and then
contemplate the nature of greed, say as a manifestation of one of the
hindrances.</p>
<p>The reason why the four mental aggregates (<em>khandha</em>) do not comprise
one of the foundations of mindfulness is because these aggregates are
in a sense more abstract: they are more difficult to ’capture’ in
awareness. The four <em>satipaṭṭhāna</em> are more practical – they are more
easily observable and deal with everyday phenomena.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Before examining right mindfulness within the context of the Four
Foundations of Mindfulness, it is important to gain a basic
understanding of this term <em>sati</em> (’mindfulness’).</p>
<h3 id="mindfulness-as-heedfulness"><a class="header" href="#mindfulness-as-heedfulness">Mindfulness as Heedfulness</a></h3>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>(English translations for <em>sati</em> include: mindfulness,
attentiveness, and detached watching. Translations for <em>appamāda</em>
include: heedfulness, watchfulness, earnestness, diligence, zeal,
carefulness, non-neglect of mindfulness, and non-negligence.)</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>Sati</em> is most simply rendered as ’recollection’, but such a translation
may convey the idea that it is simply an aspect of memory. While memory
is certainly a valid element of <em>sati’s</em> function, it does not do full
justice to the essential meaning of the term. As a negation, apart from
its meaning of ’non-forgetting’, <em>sati</em> also refers to
’non-carelessness’, ’non-negligence’, ’non-distraction’, and
’non-confusion’. The mind is neither disorientated nor inattentive;
rather it is focused and alert. These negations point to the positive
qualities of circumspection, discernment of one’s responsibilities,
attentiveness to one’s actions, and a readiness to receive things
combined with an awareness of how to engage with them, giving rise to
vigilance and care.</p>
<p>The function of mindfulness is often compared to that of a gatekeeper,
who pays constant attention to those people who enter and leave a city
gate, permitting those suitable persons to enter and leave, while
forbidding those who are unsuitable. Mindfulness is thus of major
importance in the field of ethics. It regulates people’s actions, and it
helps to protect and restrain, by keeping people from indulging in bad
actions and by preventing unwholesomeness from infiltrating the mind.
Put in simple terms, mindfulness reminds us to do good and to give no
ground to the bad.</p>
<p>The Buddhist teachings give great importance to mindfulness at every
level of ethical conduct. Conducting one’s life or one’s Dhamma practice
constantly governed by mindfulness is called <em>appamāda</em>, or heedfulness.
Heedfulness is of central importance to progress in a system of ethics,
and is usually defined as ’living with uninterrupted awareness’. {760}
This may be expanded on as implying: constant care and circumspection,
not allowing oneself to stumble into harmful ways; not missing any
opportunity for betterment; a clear awareness of what things need to be
done and what left undone; non-negligence; and performing one’s daily
tasks with sincerity and with unbending effort towards improvement. It
may be said that <em>appamāda</em> is the Buddhist sense of responsibility.</p>
<p>Heedfulness is classified as an ’internal factor’, as is wise reflection
(<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>). Both of these factors may form a pair with an
identical external counterpart: association with good and noble friends
(<em>kalyāṇamittatā</em>). The Buddha’s words describing heedfulness sometimes
overlap his descriptions of wise reflection, for these two qualities are
of equal importance, though they differ in application.</p>
<p>Wise reflection is a wisdom factor and is a tool for practical
application. Heedfulness, on the other hand, is a concentration factor;
it is that which governs the use of wise reflection, urges its
employment, and constantly inspires one to further progress.</p>
<p>The importance and scope of heedfulness at various levels of ethical
conduct may be seen from the Buddha’s own words in the following
examples:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, just as the footprints of all land animals fit into the
footprint of the elephant, and the elephant’s footprint is declared to
be the chief among them, that is, with respect to size, so too
whatever wholesome states there are, they are all rooted in diligence,
converge upon diligence, and diligence is declared to be the chief
among them.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 43; A. V. 21-22.</em></p>
<p>No other thing do I see which is so responsible for causing unarisen
wholesome states to arise and arisen unwholesome states to wane as
diligence. In one who is diligent, wholesome states not yet arisen
will arise and unwholesome states that have arisen will wane.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 11.</em></p>
<p>No other thing do I see which is so helpful for great benefit as
diligence….</p>
<p><em>A. I. 16.</em></p>
<p>No other thing do I see which is so helpful for the stability, the
non-vanishing, the non-disappearance of the True Dhamma as diligence.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 16-17.</em></p>
<p>As to internal factors, I do not see any other factor that is so
helpful for great benefit as diligence.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 17-18.</em></p>
<p>Just as the dawn is the forerunner and precursor of the rising of the
sun, so too, accomplishment in diligence is the forerunner and
precursor for the arising of the Noble Eightfold Path for a
bhikkhu…. {761} The chief quality for greatly assisting the arising
of the Noble Eightfold Path is accomplishment in diligence…. I see
no other thing by means of which the unarisen Noble Eightfold Path
arises and the arisen Noble Eightfold Path prospers and is fulfilled
as the accomplishment of diligence…. When a bhikkhu is diligent it
is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate this Noble
Eightfold Path.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 30, 32-3, 35-7, 41-45.</em></p>
<p>In regard to four matters, O monks, should diligence be cultivated.
What four?</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>You should abandon immoral physical conduct, cultivate virtuous
physical conduct, and not be negligent in this.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You should abandon immoral verbal conduct, cultivate virtuous
verbal conduct, and not be negligent in this.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You should abandon immoral mental conduct, cultivate virtuous
mental conduct, and not be negligent in this.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You should abandon wrong view, cultivate right view, and not be
negligent in this.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>If a monk has abandoned immoral physical conduct, cultivated virtuous
physical conduct … abandoned wrong view, and cultivated right view,
he does not fear advancing death.</p>
<p><em>A. II. 119-20.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>In four ways, O monks, should a monk cultivate diligence by himself,
guarding the mind with mindfulness:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>’May my mind not harbour lust for anything inducing lust….’</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>’May my mind not harbour anger for anything inducing anger….’</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>’May my mind not be deluded by anything inducing delusion….’</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>’May my mind not be infatuated by anything inducing
infatuation….’</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>When a monk’s mind does not harbour lust for lust-inducing objects,
because he is free from lust, when his mind does not harbour anger …
when he is not deluded … when he is not infatuated, then he will not
waver, shake, recoil, or tremble with fear, and he will not [need
to] believe anyone, not even the words of ascetics.</p>
<p><em>A. II. 120.</em></p>
<p><em>King Pasenadi:</em> Is there, venerable sir, one thing which secures both
kinds of good, the good pertaining to the present (or the visible
good) and that pertaining to the future (or the spiritual,
inconspicuous good)?</p>
<p><em>Buddha:</em> There is.</p>
<p><em>King Pasenadi:</em> And what is that one thing?</p>
<p><em>Buddha:</em> Diligence, great king.</p>
<p><em>S. I. 86; A. III. 364.</em></p>
<p>So it is, great king! The Dhamma which has been well expounded by me
is for one with good friends, good companions, good comrades, not for
one with bad friends, bad companions, bad comrades…. Indeed, good
friendship is equal to the whole of the holy life.</p>
<p>Therefore, great king, you should train yourself thus: ’I will have
good friends, good companions, good comrades to associate with.’ When,
great king, you have good friends, good companions, good comrades, you
should dwell with one thing for support: diligence in wholesome
states. {762}</p>
<p>When, great king, you are dwelling diligently, with diligence for
support, your ladies of the court … retinue of nobles … soldiers
… subjects in town and countryside will think thus: ’The king dwells
diligently, with diligence for support. Come now, let us also dwell
diligently, with diligence for support.’</p>
<p>When, great king, you are dwelling diligently, with diligence for
support, you yourself will be guarded and protected, your retinue of
royal ladies will be guarded and protected, [even] your treasury and
storehouses will be guarded and protected.</p>
<p><em>S. I. 87-9.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Even the Buddha’s last words which he uttered before his final passing
away (<em>parinibbāna</em>) pertain to heedfulness:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>All conditioned things are of a nature to decay; strive to attain the
goal by diligence.</p>
<p><em>D. II. 155-6.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h3 id="social-value-of-mindfulness"><a class="header" href="#social-value-of-mindfulness">Social Value of Mindfulness</a></h3>
<p>In the following quotation from the Sedaka Sutta, the Buddha’s words
describing the benefits of mindfulness (<em>sati</em>) reveal the closeness, in
practical terms, of its meaning to that of heedfulness (<em>appamāda</em>).
Besides clarifying the meaning of these two qualities, this sutta also
reveals the Buddhist attitude towards a person’s relationship to
society. The Buddhist teachings view the internal life of an individual
as intimately connected to the external world – to society. These two
aspects of a person’s life are inseparable:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, once in the past an acrobat set up his bamboo pole and
addressed his apprentice thus: ’Come, climb the bamboo pole and stand
on my shoulders.’ Having consented to this request, the apprentice
climbed up the bamboo pole and stood on the teacher’s shoulders.</p>
<p>Then the acrobat said to the apprentice: ’You protect me and I’ll
protect you. Thus guarded by one another, protected by one another,
we’ll display our skills, collect our fee, and get down safely from
the bamboo pole.’</p>
<p>When this was said, the apprentice replied: ’That’s not the way to do
it, sir. You protect yourself, teacher, and I’ll protect myself. Thus,
each self-guarded and self-protected, we’ll display our skills,
collect our fee, and get down safely from the bamboo pole.’</p>
<p>That is the correct method in that case. It is just as the apprentice
said to the teacher. When thinking, ’I will protect myself’, one must
apply the foundations of mindfulness; [so too], when thinking, ’I
will protect others’, one must apply the foundations of mindfulness.
Protecting oneself, monks, one protects others; protecting others, one
protects oneself.</p>
<p>And how is it that by protecting oneself one protects others? By
persistent practice, by cultivation, and by enhancement. It is in such
a way that by protecting oneself one protects others.</p>
<p>And how is it that by protecting others one protects oneself? By
patience, harmlessness, lovingkindness, and compassion. It is in such
a way that by protecting others one protects oneself.</p>
<p>When thinking, ’I will protect myself’, one applies the foundations of
mindfulness; when thinking, ’I will protect others’, one applies the
foundations of mindfulness. Protecting oneself, monks, one protects
others; protecting others, one protects oneself. {763}</p>
<p><em>S. V. 168-9.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h3 id="mindfulness-for-wisdom-development-and-the-removal-of-mental-impurity"><a class="header" href="#mindfulness-for-wisdom-development-and-the-removal-of-mental-impurity">Mindfulness for Wisdom Development and the Removal of Mental Impurity</a></h3>
<p>Heedfulness (<em>appamāda</em>) refers to seamless mindful awareness, to living
one’s life with constant mindfulness. Heedfulness makes one careful and
prudent; it prevents one from falling into bad or harmful ways. It leads
to self-restraint, warning one against infatuation and indulgence. It
urges one to not be complacent; it induces striving and encourages one
to continually develop in spiritual practice. It makes one constantly
aware of one’s responsibilities, by reminding one of what needs to be
done and what does not, of what has been accomplished and what remains
to be done. And it helps one to perform one’s various tasks with
circumspection and precision. Thus, as stated earlier, heedfulness is of
major significance in a system of ethics.</p>
<p>Heedfulness as an expression of mindfulness has a wide-ranging
significance in relation to one’s general conduct in life. Broadly
speaking, it is applicable from the stage of moral conduct (<em>sīla</em>) up
to the stage of concentration (<em>samādhi</em>). At these stages, mindfulness
is associated with a large number of other spiritual qualities,
particularly effort (<em>vāyāma</em>), with which it is combined at all times.</p>
<p>Looked at solely in terms of the mind during the process of wisdom
development (the use of wisdom to purify the mind), however, heedfulness
(<em>appamāda</em>) is not directly involved, but rather gives devoted support
and encouragement from without. At this stage, attention is confined to
the workings of the mind, finely discriminating between the various
phenomena present, in a moment-by-moment analysis. It is at this stage
that mindfulness is fully engaged and plays a prominent role, and is
referred to by its specific name: <em>sati</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<p>An understanding of the essential, unique meaning of <em>sati</em> may be
gained by contemplating its function on those occasions when its role is
clearly distinguishable from that of other spiritual factors, most
notably in the practice called the Four Foundations of Mindfulness
(<em>satipaṭṭhāna</em>). On such occasions the function of mindfulness can be
summarized as follows:</p>
<p>The primary function of mindfulness is that it prevents the mind from
distraction; it does not allow sense impressions to pass by unheeded. It
guards against absent-mindedness. It is attentive, as if keeping its
eyes on each impression that passes into consciousness and then bearing
down on it. When one wishes to concentrate on a particular object,
mindfulness maintains one’s attention fixedly upon it, not allowing the
object to slip away or disappear. By means of <em>sati</em>, one constantly
recollects the object and bears it in mind.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup></p>
<p>One metaphor for mindfulness is a pillar, because it is firmly embedded
in its object of attention. Another metaphor is a gatekeeper, because it
watches over the various sense doors through which sense data pass,
inspecting all that enters. The ’proximate cause’ (<em>padaṭṭhāna</em>) for the
arising of <em>sati</em> is firm and clear perception (<em>saññā</em>) of an object.
Alternatively, the proximate cause is any one of the Four Foundations of
Mindfulness (<em>satipaṭṭhāna</em>), which are discussed below.</p>
<p>Looking at it from the point of view of ethics, one can discern both
negating and positive aspects of mindfulness. As a negating factor,
mindfulness guards the mind; it defends against mental distraction,
protects one from making mistakes, and prevents one from falling into
undesirable mental states or situations. It allows no opportunity for
unwholesomeness to enter the mind and it prevents the misuse of thought.</p>
<p>On the positive side, mindfulness guides the stream of conscious
experience, the flow of thought, and indeed all of one’s actions, so
that they follow a desired course. It keeps the mind harnessed to its
chosen object. It is thus the tool for laying hold of an object of
attention, as if placing it in front of the mind for consideration.
{764}</p>
<p>In the Buddhist path of practice, there is great emphasis on the
importance of mindfulness. Indeed, the Buddha said that it is required
in every situation. Mindfulness is compared to salt, which must be used
in every curry, and to a prime minister, who is involved in every branch
of government. Mindfulness may either restrain or support the mind,
depending on the needs of the situation.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup></p>
<p>Considering the attributes of mindfulness mentioned above, one sees the
benefits of developing mindfulness as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>An ability to maintain and safeguard desired states of mind, by
monitoring the cognitive process and the stream of thought; one
accepts only that which is favourable to the mind and bars all that
which is not. Moreover, by regulating and stilling the thinking
process, one facilitates the attainment of concentration
(<em>samādhi</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Freedom, both physical and mental, and ’self-sufficiency’; the body
and the mind are intrinsically at ease and relaxed, ready to
encounter various situations, and able to effectively deal with
things in the world.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>An ability, in states of concentration, to guide the cognitive
process and the stream of thought, and to expand their range of
activity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Investigation by the wisdom faculty proceeds with optimum clarity.
By taking hold of a meditation object and, as it were, placing it in
front of the mind for subsequent investigation, mindfulness acts as
a basis on which wisdom can be developed and brought to perfection.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The purification of all volitional actions of body, speech and mind;
a freedom from the tainted influence by craving and clinging.
Accompanied by clear comprehension (<em>sampajañña</em>), mindfulness
ensures that one’s actions are guided by wisdom – by pure, reasoned
discernment.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>The last two benefits listed above are the goals of an advanced stage of
spiritual development, and are obtained through a prescribed method of
practice referred to as the Four Foundations of Mindfulness
(<em>satipaṭṭhāna</em>).</p>
<h3 id="right-mindfulness-in-the-context-of-the-four-foundations-of-mindfulness"><a class="header" href="#right-mindfulness-in-the-context-of-the-four-foundations-of-mindfulness">Right Mindfulness in the Context of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness</a></h3>
<p><em>Satipaṭṭhāna</em> may be translated as the ’foundations of mindfulness’ or
the ’establishing of mindfulness’ (i.e. the supervision or guidance by
mindfulness). Technically, this term refers to methods of applying
mindfulness that produce optimal results, as indicated by the Buddha’s
words in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Bhikkhus, this is the chief path for the purification of beings, for
passing beyond sorrow and lamentation, for the disappearance of pain
and grief, for the attainment of the sublime way, for the realization
of Nibbāna – namely, the Four Foundations of Mindfulness.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
<p><em>D. II. 290; M. I. 55-6.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The cultivation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness is a very popular
and revered method of Dhamma practice. It is considered to incorporate
both tranquillity meditation (<em>samatha</em>) and insight meditation
(<em>vipassanā</em>). A practitioner may develop tranquillity until the
attainment of <em>jhāna</em> (see the following section on concentration)
before developing insight based on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness
and reaching the final goal. Alternatively, he or she may develop
insight (again, based on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness) as the
principal form of meditation, relying on only a basic level of
concentration, just as much as is necessary for the task, and then reach
the final goal. {765}</p>
<p>Insight meditation (<em>vipassanā</em>) is a vital principle of Buddhist
practice, which, though widely discussed, is also widely misunderstood.
The following examination of the Foundations of Mindfulness
(<em>satipaṭṭhāna</em>), however brief, will shed some light on the meaning of
<em>vipassanā</em>, including its essential attributes, its range of
application, and its versatility, as well as the possibilities and
benefits of practising insight meditation in everyday life.</p>
<p>The Four Foundations of Mindfulness are outlined as follows:</p>
<p><strong>1. Kāyānupassanā:</strong> contemplation of the body; mindfulness of the
body:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Mindfulness of breathing (<em>ānāpānasati</em>): going to a secluded place,
sitting in a suitable posture for meditation, establishing
mindfulness, and focusing on various aspects of the in- and
out-breathing.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Mindfulness of posture (<em>iriyāpatha</em>): clearly perceiving the
present ’mode’ or posture of the body, say of standing, walking,
sitting, or lying down.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Clear comprehension (<em>sampajañña</em>): maintaining clear comprehension
in every activity, e.g.: moving forward, looking around, stretching
out the arms, dressing, drinking, eating, chewing, urinating,
defecating, waking up, going to sleep, speaking, and remaining
silent.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Meditation on the repulsive (<em>paṭikkūla-manasikāra</em>): contemplating
the body, from the top of the head to the soles of the feet, as a
repository of various unattractive constituents.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Meditation on the elements (<em>dhātu-manasikāra</em>): contemplating the
body by considering it separated into its four constituent elements.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Nine cemetery contemplations (<em>nava-sīvathikā</em>): looking at corpses
in nine different stages of decay, from one newly dead to one
reduced to crumbling bones. In each case, one reflects that one’s
own body must meet a similar fate.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><strong>2. Vedanānupassanā:</strong> mindfulness of feeling (<em>vedanā</em>; sensation):
when a feeling of pleasure or pain or a neutral feeling arises, whether
dependent on material things (<em>sāmisa</em>) or independent of material
things (<em>nirāmisa</em>), one perceives it clearly, as it actually exists in
that moment of occurrence.</p>
<p><strong>3. Cittānupassanā:</strong> mindfulness of the nature of the mind; insight
into the state of the mind in any given moment. For example, one
perceives clearly whether the mind is lustful or free from lust, angry
or free from anger, deluded or free from delusion, agitated or
concentrated, liberated or fettered, etc.</p>
<p><strong>4. Dhammānupassanā:</strong> mindfulness of mind-objects:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Hindrances (<em>nīvaraṇa</em>):<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup> clearly perceiving, in each moment,
whether any of the five hindrances are present in the mind or not;
clearly perceiving how as-yet unarisen hindrances arise, how
hindrances already arisen may be abandoned, and how abandoned
hindrances may be prevented from arising again.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Aggregates (<em>khandha</em>): clearly understanding the five aggregates;
knowing the nature of each aggregate; knowing how each aggregate
arises and how it ceases. {766}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Sense spheres (<em>āyatana</em>): clearly understanding each of the six
internal sense bases and the six external sense objects;