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                        <h1 id="path-factors-of-virtuous-conduct"><a class="header" href="#path-factors-of-virtuous-conduct">Path Factors of Virtuous Conduct</a></h1>
<p><em>Sīla and the Social Objectives of Moral Conduct</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-17-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-17-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
  <a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-17-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
    (Open large size)
  </a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>On a fundamental level, morality (<em>sīla</em>; virtuous conduct) is an
objective truth. It is described by the three Path factors of right
speech, right action, and right livelihood: it refers to intentional
speech, action, and livelihood that is free from evil, immoral conduct
and from thoughts of harm and oppression, and it incorporates
corresponding virtuous, upright behaviour.</p>
<p>From the outset, Buddhist practitioners should clearly discern the
purpose and objectives of those moral practices that they uphold and
undertake. They should understand how virtuous conduct fits into a wider
system of spiritual training, recognizing that the deepening of virtue
is related to mind development and wisdom development. Virtuous conduct
supports concentration and leads to clear knowledge and vision
(<em>ñāṇa-dassana</em>). It leads to the end of suffering, to blessings, and to
true wellbeing. And it is essential for happiness, both for an
individual and for society.</p>
<p>The Noble Eightfold Path, comprising a complete set of spiritual
factors, is divided into three groups: virtuous conduct (<em>sīla</em>),
concentration (<em>samādhi</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>). These three main
factors also comprise the threefold training – the training in higher
virtue (<em>adhisīla-sikkhā</em>), the training in higher mind
(<em>adhicitta-sikkhā</em>), and the training in higher wisdom
(<em>adhipaññā-sikkhā</em>) – which may be simply rendered as <em>sīla</em>,
<em>samādhi</em>, and <em>paññā</em>.</p>
<p>The entire Buddhist practice, training, discipline, spiritual
development, and path to Nibbāna is incorporated within this threefold
training, derived from the Eightfold Path. True, genuine, and complete
moral conduct refers to the three Path factors contained within the
<em>sīla</em> group, i.e. right speech, right action, and right livelihood.</p>
<h2 id="path-factors-of-virtuous-conduct-1"><a class="header" href="#path-factors-of-virtuous-conduct-1">Path Factors of Virtuous Conduct</a></h2>
<p>The section of the Eightfold Path on virtuous conduct (<em>sīla</em>) contains
three factors: right speech (<em>sammā-vācā</em>), right action
(<em>sammā-kammanta</em>), and right livelihood (<em>sammā-ājīva</em>). Here is an
example of how these three factors are defined in the scriptures:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>And what, monks, is right speech? This is called right speech:</em></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>To abstain from false speech (<em>musāvādā veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To abstain from divisive speech (<em>pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To abstain from harsh speech (<em>pharusā vācāya veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To abstain from idle chatter (<em>samphappalāpā veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>And what, monks, is right action? This is called right action:</em></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>To abstain from killing living beings (<em>pāṇātipātā veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To abstain from taking what is not freely given (<em>adinnādānā
veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To abstain from sexual misconduct (<em>kāmesumicchācārā veramaṇī</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>And what, monks, is right livelihood? This is called right
livelihood: here a noble disciple, having abandoned wrong
livelihood,</em><sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> <em>earns his living by right livelihood.</em><sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>There are also definitions for these three factors distinguishing
between the mundane level and the transcendent. The definitions for the
mundane level are the same as those above; the definitions for the
transcendent are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Transcendent right speech:</em> the refraining, the avoidance, the
abstinence from, the intention to desist from the four kinds of
verbal misconduct in one whose mind is noble, whose mind is
taintless, who has attained to the noble path, and is developing the
noble path.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Transcendent right action:</em> the refraining, the avoidance, the
abstinence from, the intention to desist from the three kinds of
physical misconduct in one whose mind is noble … and is developing
the noble path.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Transcendent right livelihood:</em> the refraining, the avoidance, the
abstinence from, the intention to desist from wrong livelihood in
one whose mind is noble … and is developing the noble path.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup>
{711}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<h2 id="universal-principles-of-morality"><a class="header" href="#universal-principles-of-morality">Universal Principles of Morality</a></h2>
<p>The Buddhist teachings expand upon the essential principles of moral
training – collectively referred to as the ’training in higher virtue’
(<em>adhisīla-sikkhā</em>) – in a detailed and comprehensive way. Various
precepts and moral standards are established for practical application
in order to generate wholesome results for both an individual and for
all of society. This practical outline of moral conduct begins with a
teaching on behaviour – the ten wholesome courses of action
(<em>kusala-kammapatha</em>) – corresponding to the three factors of the Noble
Path mentioned above, and with a teaching on the most basic form of
moral conduct: the five precepts.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup></p>
<p>There is, however, no limit to the expansion and details of such a
practical outline of moral conduct: teachings are presented in the texts
according to specific individuals, time periods, locations, and other
related circumstances. It is not possible here to compile all of these
varied and detailed teachings on moral conduct.</p>
<p>It is sufficient to present the central principles of the Buddhist
teachings on virtuous conduct, which are described in the scriptures in
a clearly defined way. I will leave it up to the reader to find specific
teachings that match their disposition, life circumstances, and aims.</p>
<p>Leaving aside teachings appropriate to specific individuals, time
periods, places, and occasions, a key factor in determining practical
teachings on virtuous conduct is a person’s occupation or state of
living. For this reason there are distinct codes of conduct, precepts,
and systems of practice for householders and for renunciants.</p>
<p>A student of Buddhism must understand the principles, value, and most
importantly the objectives of these distinct ethical codes, both in
their variant details and in their ultimate unity and concordance, in
order to possess a true understanding of this subject and to practise
the Dhamma correctly.</p>
<p>A key example of distilling the essence of the Path factors related to
virtuous conduct and presenting practical principles of conduct is the
teaching on the ten wholesome ways of conduct (<em>kusala-kammapatha</em>).
This teaching matches the Path factors directly; it only differs in so
far as it arranges physical action (corresponding to ’right action’)
before verbal action (corresponding to ’right speech’). This teaching is
known by other names, including: ’upright conduct’ (<em>sucarita</em>), ’purity
by way of body, speech, (and mind)’, and ’excellence of action’.
Following is a passage from the Pali Canon describing this teaching:</p>
<p>At one time when the Buddha was staying at Pāvā in the mango grove of
the silversmith Cunda, Cunda approached the Buddha and they conversed on
’acts of purification’ (<em>soceyya-kamma</em>). Cunda said that he approves of
the purifying rites prescribed by the brahmins of the western districts,
who carry waterpots, wear garlands of waterweed, worship fire, and
submerge themselves in water.</p>
<p>According to these rites, in the early morning on rising from one’s bed
a person must touch the earth. If he does not touch the earth, then he
must touch fresh cow-dung, or green grass, or tend to a fire, or pay
reverence to the sun, or else he must descend into water three times in
the evening. (See
Note <a href="#note-superstitious-rites">Superstitious Rites</a>) {712}</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Superstitious Rites</span><a id="note-superstitious-rites"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Such unyielding adherence to moral precepts and religious practices
(<em>sīlabbataparāmāsa</em>) has been widespread in India from the Buddha’s
time to the present day without abating. Abolishing this form of blind
belief was one of the Buddha’s primary intentions in his teaching and
activities, along with abolishing the caste system and drawing people
away from metaphysical speculations towards a consideration of more
pertinent and valid questions.</p>
<p>An increasing adherence to this blind belief and to superstitious
rites and ceremonies accompanied the demise of Buddhism in India, and
was indeed a crucial factor for its demise. It is fair to say that
such blind belief shapes the state of Indian society today. Wherever
such blind belief in religious precepts and practices increases, an
upholding of the true Buddhist teachings will fall into decline.</p>
<p>In the history of human civilizations, such a firm adherence to rites
and ceremonies (even to ones that are more rational than those
mentioned above) have led to violent social revolution and even to the
end of these civilizations.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Buddha answered that the self-purifying rites of these brahmins are
different from the self-purification found in the noble discipline
(<em>ariya-vinaya</em>). People who engage in the ten unwholesome courses of
action (killing living beings, stealing, etc. – the opposite factors to
the ten wholesome courses of action) are impure in body, speech and
mind. Regardless of whether they touch the earth, touch cowdung, worship
fire, honour the sun, or refrain from these actions they remain impure,
because these unwholesome ways of action are inherently impure and lead
to impurity.</p>
<p>The Buddha then described the ten ways of wholesome action, which lead
to self-purification (<em>soceyya</em>):</p>
<p><strong>A.</strong> Three kinds of purification by way of the body:</p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>1.</strong> A person abandons the killing of living beings (<em>pāṇātipāta</em>),
abstains from taking life; with rod and weapon laid aside,
conscientious and kind, he abides compassionate and eager to help
all living beings.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>2.</strong> A person abandons from taking what is not freely given
(<em>adinnādāna</em>) and abstains therefrom; he does not take with
thievish intent the property of another, situated at home or in the
forest.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>3.</strong> A person abandons sexual misconduct (<em>kāmesu-micchācāra</em>) and
abstains therefrom; he does not violate women who are protected by
their mother, father, brother, sister, or relatives, who are
protected by the Dhamma (e.g. by legal guardianship), who have a
husband, women who are off limits, even those who are engaged.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>B.</strong> Four kinds of purification by way of speech:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>4.</strong> A person abandons false speech (<em>musāvāda</em>), abstains from false
speech; when summoned to a court, or to a meeting, or to his
relatives’ presence, or to an assembly, or to the royal family’s
presence, and questioned as a witness thus: ’So, good man, tell what
you know’, not knowing, he says, ’I do not know’, or knowing, he
says, ’I know’; not seeing, he says, ’I do not see’, or seeing, he
says, ’I see’; he does not in full awareness speak falsehood for his
own ends, or for another’s ends, or for some form of reward.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>5.</strong> A person abandons divisive speech (<em>pisuṇā-vācā</em>), abstains from
divisive speech; he does not repeat elsewhere what he has heard here
in order to divide those people from these, nor does he repeat to
these people what he has heard elsewhere in order to divide these
people from those; thus he is one who reunites those who are
divided, a promoter of solidarity, who enjoys concord, rejoices in
concord, delights in concord, a speaker of words that promote
concord.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>6.</strong> A person abandons harsh speech (<em>pharusa-vācā</em>), abstains from harsh
speech; he speaks such words as are unoffensive, pleasing to the ear
and loveable, words that go to the heart, are courteous, agreeable
to many and delightful to many.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>7.</strong> A person abandons [unreflective] chatter (<em>samphappalāpa</em>),
abstains from trivial talk; he speaks at the right time, speaks what
is fact, speaks on what is good, speaks on the Dhamma and the
Discipline; at the right time he speaks such words as can be
substantiated, are relevant, moderate, and beneficial.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>C.</strong> Three kinds of purification by way of mind:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>8.</strong> non-covetousness (<em>anabhijjhā</em>),</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>9.</strong> non-ill-will (<em>abyāpāda</em>; the wish for all beings to abide in
happiness), and</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>10.</strong> right view (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>).</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p>These three factors are an extension of the first two factors of the
Eightfold Path: right view (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>) and right intention
(<em>sammā-saṅkappa</em>): {713}</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>A person endowed with these ten wholesome courses of action, in the
early morning on rising from his bed, if he touches the earth he is
pure, if he does not touch the earth he is pure … if he pays
reverence to the sun he is pure, if he does not pay reverence to the
sun he is pure … because these ten wholesome courses of action are
inherently pure and they lead to purification.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup></p>
<p><em>A. V. 263.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Earlier it was mentioned that the essential principles of virtuous
conduct are expanded for practical purposes, suitable to particular
circumstances. For example, in reference to someone who has been
ordained as a monk, apart from the adjustment and addition of specific
moral precepts, even those precepts that remain the same are sometimes
interpreted in a new way. Compare these precepts on stealing and lying
with the definitions presented above in the ten courses of wholesome
action:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Abandoning the taking of what is not given, he abstains from taking
what is not given; taking only what is given, expecting only what is
given, by not stealing he abides in purity.</p>
<p>Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech; he speaks
truth, upholds the truth, is trustworthy and reliable, one who is no
deceiver of the world.</p>
<p><em>D. I. 4-5, 63-4, 100-101, etc.; M. I. 267-8, 345; A. V. 204-5.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The expanded definitions for the factors of the Eightfold Path related
to virtuous conduct are usually divided into two parts. The first part
describes the refraining from doing evil, and the latter part describes
performing a wholesome activity, which opposes the unskilful action that
the person is avoiding. The former part employs language of negation;
the latter part employs language of promotion or affirmation.</p>
<p>This pairing of ’negative’ and ’positive’ instruction is a common
attribute of the Buddhist teachings, in line with the principle:
’refrain from evil, cultivate the good’.</p>
<p>Beginning with the refraining from evil, the cultivation of the good can
be expanded on progressively, which is not limited to these factors of
the Path. For example, in regard to theft (<em>adinnādāna</em>), although the
teachings cited above are not expanded into a clear application of
cultivating wholesome qualities, there are other, complementary
teachings on the key Buddhist principle of generosity (<em>dāna</em>).</p>
<h2 id="theistic-morality-vs-a-doctrine-of-natural-truth"><a class="header" href="#theistic-morality-vs-a-doctrine-of-natural-truth">Theistic Morality vs a Doctrine of Natural Truth</a></h2>
<p>Some Western scholars have criticized Buddhism for teaching in an
exclusively negative way. They claim that Buddhism teaches people to
solely refrain from evil, but it does not encourage people to exert
themselves in a positive way by doing good; Buddhism does not advise
people how to promote goodness once they have refrained from wrongdoing;
Buddhism is merely a teaching of subjectivity, an ’ethic of abstract
thinking’, a teaching of resignation and passivity. They go on to say
that Buddhist teachings lead Buddhists to be contented merely with
avoiding evil, but they take no interest in helping other human beings
find freedom from suffering and discover true happiness. {714}</p>
<p>These scholars claim that even though Buddhism teaches lovingkindness
and compassion, these qualities are confined simply to mental
activities. They draw upon passages in the Tipiṭaka to support their
view that the Buddhist teachings are exclusively negative. For example,
they cite the definition for right action (<em>sammā-kammanta</em>) presented
by Ven. Sāriputta:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>And what, friends, is right action? Abstaining from killing living
beings, abstaining from taking what is not given, and abstaining from
misconduct in sensual pleasures – this is called right action.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup></p>
<p><em>M. III. 251-2.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Someone who recognizes the true practical application of these Path
factors, as is outlined for example in the elaboration of moral conduct
contained in the ten wholesome courses of action, will see that these
scholars who offer criticism (much of which is well-intentioned) surely
have garnered only an incomplete knowledge and do not understand
Buddha-Dhamma in its entirety. It is clear that the system of virtuous
conduct based on these factors of the Path is not restricted to being
’negative’, ’passive’, ’subjective’, or merely an ’ethic of abstract
thinking’.</p>
<p>In any case, when one encounters such criticisms, one should take the
opportunity to clarify these matters within oneself and expand one’s
understanding. The explanations of the moral factors of the Path refer
to basic behaviour linked with intention. They are initially defined
through a terminology of negation (i.e. the definitions emphasize the
refraining from evil) for the following reasons:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>In Buddhism, moral precepts and codes of conduct are not divine
edicts or commandments etched in stone, which through God’s will
stipulate how people should behave, often through blind faith,
without needing to understand the justifications for moral
behaviour. {715}</p>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma, moral precepts are determined according to laws of
nature, and collectively they constitute the beginning stage of
spiritual development. Someone who upholds these precepts ought to
discern the relationship to these natural laws. Although one may not
yet possess a clear understanding and may only act at the level of
faith, this faith should be ’well-grounded’ (<em>ākāravatī-saddhā</em>) –
it should at least be based on a rudimentary understanding of cause
and effect, enough to give rise to increasing degrees of wisdom.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In the gradual development of Dhamma practice or of spiritual
training, one must prepare a stable and even foundation. One begins
with refraining from or eliminating unwholesome actions, before one
cultivates goodness and eventually reaches purity and liberation.
This is similar to growing a fruit tree: one must first prepare the
soil by removing harmful elements; then one is ready to plant the
seed, nurture the plant, and harvest one’s desired fruit.</p>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma, virtuous conduct (<em>sīla</em>) is the first stage of
practice, in which the emphasis is on refraining from unskilful
actions. At first there is a repeated focus on those things that
need to be eliminated, after which the boundaries of spiritual
practice can be expanded, by gradually including the elevated stages
of concentration and wisdom.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Within the system of the threefold training, moral conduct in itself
is not a practice leading to the highest goal. Rather, it prepares
the general foundation of one’s life and makes one ready to
cultivate the essential factor of mental development, which is
referred to in brief as ’concentration’ (<em>samādhi</em>). This next stage
of development follows on from and reaps the benefits of moral
conduct.</p>
<p>The spiritual value of moral conduct is tremendous: the intention to
refrain from evil or the absence of any thoughts of wrongdoing
purifies and steadies the mind; a person is thus not disturbed by
confusion, distress, or anxiety. The mind becomes tranquil and
concentrated.</p>
<p>When the mind is peaceful and concentrated, one develops clarity and
proficiency in wisdom – one uses reasoned discernment and seeks
ways to further cultivate goodness and to reach higher stages of
spiritual accomplishment.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Being endowed with a strong, virtuous, and joyous mind is of vital
importance. In Buddhist ethics there must be a constant link and
integration between one’s state of mind and one’s external physical
and verbal actions. The mind is the source of all action, and
therefore intention is the principal factor in determining the true
sincerity of a person’s virtuous deeds. Not deceiving others is an
inadequate yardstick – there must also be an absence of
self-deception. Developing a wholesome integration of factors
uplifts the mind and prevents the problem of mental behaviour and
external behaviour being at odds with one another.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Path factors related to moral conduct reveal that the most basic
form of human responsibility is to take responsibility for one’s own
mind: to guard against all thoughts of harming or violating others.
When a person has established this basic purity of mind, personal
responsibility expands outwards to sustaining and cultivating
spiritual qualities and performing virtuous deeds in order to help
others. In sum, there is the personal responsibility to refrain from
evil and the social responsibility to act for others’ wellbeing and
happiness.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To interpret <em>sīla</em> as the refraining from harm and wrongdoing is to
define the principles of spiritual practice in a basic and uniform
way. This interpretation emphasizes volition that is completely free
from corruption and wickedness. When one has achieved such a basic
discipline and freedom from affliction and turmoil, both internal
and external, one can begin to expand on and cultivate aspects of
wholesome and virtuous conduct. {716}</p>
<p>In regard to goodness, its details and methods of practice are
limitless and vary according to time and place. Unskilful actions,
on the other hand, can be strictly defined and determined. For
example, both monks and laypeople should refrain from telling lies,
but the opportunities and methods for undertaking wholesome
activities based on honest speech may vary. The all-inclusive
principles of behaviour thus specify the refraining from basic forms
of wrongdoing. The details and methods of cultivating goodness are
matters of practical application, depending on a person’s life
circumstances.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To arrive at the goal of Buddhism it is necessary to develop every
factor of the Eightfold Path. Therefore, each Path factor must be an
all-inclusive principle which every person is able to follow and
practise, not limited to a person’s social standing, time period,
location, or specific surrounding conditions.</p>
<p>This is clearly evident in the domain of moral conduct. For example,
to abstain from taking what is not freely given is something that
every person can do, but the offering of gifts depends on other
factors, like having something to give, having a recipient, and
having a worthy recipient. In the case that a person does not have
the opportunity to give, intention that is free from any thoughts of
stealing already purifies the mind and acts as a foundation for
concentration. If one has the opportunity to give, however, this
giving will increase one’s virtue and prevent the mental stain of
being uncaring or possessive.</p>
<p>It is for these reasons that the primary interpretations of these
Path factors of morality exist in the form of negation: of
abstaining from unskilful behaviour or of an absence of evil. The
expanded interpretation of these Path factors which includes the
positive acts of generating goodness is a matter of practical
application as mentioned above.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In Dhamma practice, practitioners are often consciously developing a
specific spiritual quality or virtue. During this time the
practitioner must be absorbed in and focused on that activity. In
such circumstances one’s responsibility concerning other areas of
practice is simply to prevent harmful or unskilful conditions from
arising. Here, the desired benefit from moral conduct is to help
regulate other areas of activity: to prevent one from erring and
committing an unskilful action, to be free from mental weakness and
disturbance, and to prepare a firm foundation in order to develop
the chosen virtuous quality completely and resolutely.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>As mentioned above, the Buddhist system of spiritual training is
threefold, comprising moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom;
moreover, it is based on natural phenomena. Many of the critical
scholars mentioned above, however, view morality from the perspective of
a theistic tradition, and thus they can make neither head nor tail of
the Buddhist system. It is important to distinguish between moral
conduct as taught in Buddha-Dhamma and moral conduct as taught in
theistic religions (this analysis should include those teachings on
kamma and on good and evil). Here are some important points on this
distinction:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>In the doctrine of natural truth (<em>sabhāva-niyāma</em>), i.e.
Buddha-Dhamma, principles of moral behaviour are determined and
defined according to causal laws of nature. In theistic religions
moral principles are divine commandments laid down according to
divine will.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>From the angle of ’negation’ or restraint, moral conduct in
Buddha-Dhamma is a principle of self-discipline and self-training,
and therefore the prescribed precepts are referred to as ’training
rules’ (<em>sikkhā-pada</em>). As for moral conduct in theistic religions,
it consists of prohibitions – of commandments laid down from a
power above. {717}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma a vital factor for moral conduct is ’well-grounded
faith’ (<em>ākāravatī-saddhā</em>): a trust in natural laws and a basic
understanding that volitional actions and their results proceed in
accord with causes and conditions. A vital factor for moral conduct
in theistic religions is devotional faith (<em>bhatti</em>): a belief in,
acceptance of, and obedience to those things prescribed by God, and
a complete entrusting oneself to these prescriptions without needing
to question their validity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma a correct upholding of moral precepts entails
self-discipline, beginning with the intention to refrain from all
vices and followed by the development of virtues which are
diametrically opposed to such vices. In theistic religions the
upholding of moral precepts entails strict obedience to divine
commandments.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma, practice on the level of moral conduct has the
specific objective of acting as a foundation for concentration. It
is part of a system of training designed to prepare and enable a
person to harness the power of the mind in the greatest way
possible, eventually giving rise to wisdom and leading in the end to
perfect mental freedom. As for say, going to heaven, this is merely
a natural consequence of causes and conditions. In theistic
religions, however, upholding the commandments leads to divine
favour; it is conduct that accords with God’s will and results in
the reward of being born in heaven.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma, the good and bad results of moral or immoral
behaviour occur automatically according to a natural order; they
stem from the impartial, objective functioning of a natural law,
referred to as the law of kamma. These effects first manifest in the
mind and then manifest further in a person’s personality and way of
life, in this lifetime and in future lifetimes. In theistic
religions the good and bad results of keeping or transgressing
divine commandments are a matter of reward or retribution. The
reward for obedience is going to heaven; the punishment for
transgression is going to hell. The reward or punishment is
determined solely by divine judgement.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In regard to good and evil, Buddha-Dhamma teaches that moral virtue
protects, enhances, purifies and elevates the mind, and it is thus
referred to as <em>puñña</em> (’merit’, ’meritorious’). Moral conduct
promotes mental prosperity and mental health; it is a skilful
action, it conforms to wisdom, and it leads to liberation; thus it
is called <em>kusala</em> (’wholesome’, ’skilful’). Wicked, immoral
behaviour on the other hand impairs or decreases the quality of the
mind, and thus it is called <em>pāpa</em> (’evil’).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup> It damages a
person’s life, it is unskilful, and it is conducive neither to
mental wellbeing nor to liberation; thus it is called <em>akusala</em>
(’unskilful’, ’unwholesome’). In theistic religions, good and evil
is based primarily on faith and devotion: behaviour is measured by
obedience and conformity to God’s will and commands. Evil in
particular is interpreted as behaviour opposing or transgressing the
will of God (commonly called ’sin’).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In Buddha-Dhamma it is imperative that teachings on morality be
based on reason, for Dhamma practitioners only conduct themselves
correctly when they understand how the system of ethics is connected
to the law of causality. The prevailing morality of theistic
religions is based on divine proclamations and divine decree which
consist of disparate rules and precepts. Although these rules
may be compiled into an ethical code, they are not part of an
integrated system, because a follower of such a religion requires
only enough understanding to determine what rules have been laid
down. {718} It is not necessary to understand the entire system or
the relationship to other factors because the larger design exists
in God’s all-knowing wisdom; followers ought not to doubt, but
rather they should surrender themselves and follow obediently.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Buddhist system of ethics consists of objective and
universal principles; it is determined according to laws of nature.
(Here ethics refers to the essence of <em>sīla</em>, as the aspects of
truth dealing with good and evil; it is not referring to <em>sīla</em> as a
prescribed code of discipline – <em>vinaya</em>, which involves forms of
correction and punishment within a social setting.) In theistic
religions, ethical principles tend to be determined according to
divine will; the code of ethics resembles a prescribed code of
discipline (<em>vinaya</em>) or a legal code, because God is both the
enactor of these laws and the judge.</p>
<p>Buddha-Dhamma teaches that specific volitional actions have specific
effects on a person’s mind, behaviour, disposition, and personality.
In this context, it is invalid to set limitations or qualifications
on such effects of volitional action, for example by claiming that a
particular group of people has an advantage, or to use personal
approval as the criterion for truth. It is invalid to make the
following claims: only members of this specific religion are
compassionate and good, but members of other religions, although
they may express compassion, are not truly good; killing people of
this religion is a sin, but killing people of other religions is not
a sin; only virtuous people of this religion can go to heaven, while
people of other religions, regardless how they behave, are infidels
and are destined for hell; killing animals is not a sin, because
animals are intended as food for humans (are we not food for lions
and tigers?).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup></p>
<p>Having said this, it is valid, however, to distinguish between
different kinds of volitional actions, for instance by observing how
various degrees of unskilful behaviour effect the functioning of the
mind.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Because moral conduct is based on objective principles and
determined according to natural laws, Buddhist practitioners require
courage and honesty to acknowledge and face the truth. They are
urged to accept the truth of conditions, that good and evil, right
and wrong, exist within themselves and within the world. Whether
people practise accordingly or not, and to what extent they
practise, is another matter. People need to acknowledge whether they
are acting in conformity with these natural laws or not; they should
not consider an evil deed as good simply because it accords with
their desires. The validity of natural laws governing human
behaviour does not depend on people’s desires. If one is about to
perform an action that results in falling into hell, it is better to
acknowledge that this action is bad, but that one is still willing
to suffer the consequences, than to delude oneself into thinking
that one is doing nothing wrong.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Admittedly, there are some benefits or advantages to an ethics based on
divine mandate:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>It cuts off the need to debate whether an action is correct or
incorrect, true or false. Unquestioned belief and devotional faith
often generate ardent effort and quick results in spiritual
practice. But it also tends to create problems, e.g.: problems about
what should be done in order to instil faith in people (especially
in this age of reason); problems about how to live at peace with
other people who do not share one’s beliefs; the problem of how to
sustain faith; and a diminished opportunity for people to exercise
their wisdom faculty freely. (Some of these problems can be
overlooked if one is content for human society to be split into
divergent groups.)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ordinary people tend to find a moral system based on faith and
devotion more accessible, and this kind of moral system does a good
job at regulating ordinary people’s behaviour. Even among many
Buddhists the understanding of <em>sīla</em> in relation to good and evil
harbours beliefs that resemble those of theistic religions, for
example to view ethics as a set of prohibitions (but with only an
obscure idea of who prohibits, as opposed to theistic doctrines
which clearly state that God prohibits), and to view the results of
good and evil as a form of reward or punishment. The problem with
such a system, however, is that it relies primarily on faith. {719}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>It can provide people with moral loopholes. By determining
unwholesome actions as innocent or innocuous, people may justify
them in order to gain something for themselves. Take for example the
notion that killing animals is not a sin, which assuages people’s
sense of guilt and makes them feel blameless. Although convincing
oneself of one’s innocence can be effective, it has adverse effects
in other areas of one’s life and it does not accord with the path of
wisdom.</p>
<p>Buddha-Dhamma encourages people to have a clear awareness of the
truth at every stage of spiritual practice, and to be able to
determine and judge the truth for themselves. It teaches people to
use methods of self-motivation and independent action which include
a thorough understanding of the factors involved. These methods of
self-motivation should be harmless and only be used as a support for
generating other spiritual qualities.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="basic-moral-conduct"><a class="header" href="#basic-moral-conduct">Basic Moral Conduct</a></h2>
<p>It is important to recognize some general principles that assist in the
proper practice of moral conduct at all levels and enable one to
practise the Dhamma correctly (<em>dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti</em>).</p>
<p>The Buddha’s words above defining the Path factors of right speech,
right action, and right livelihood reveal the essence of <em>sīla</em>, and
they describe the necessary guidelines of moral conduct required for a
virtuous life. Teachers from ancient times later compiled the eight
subsidiary factors of moral conduct (derived from these three Path
factors), and called them by the name ’the set of eight precepts of
which pure livelihood is the eighth’ (<em>ājīvaṭṭhamaka-sīla</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup> {720}</p>
<p>These are the essential factors of moral conduct. From here, the
analysis of moral conduct branches out. For example, when one describes
a training for a specific group of people with a distinctive way of
life, with distinct objectives and course of development, one may
distinguish various details of practice, as the moral conduct for monks,
for nuns, for novices, for the laity, etc. Moreover, a clear system of
communal management may be established, referred to as a moral
discipline (<em>vinaya</em>), which includes measures for restraint,
administration, the exacting of penalties on transgressors, etc.</p>
<p>The Buddha’s words on the Path factors of moral conduct reveal that the
Path is not intended only for the community of monks; otherwise, the
definition for <em>sīla</em> would have to be the 227 precepts, the virtuous
conduct for bhikkhus (<em>bhikkhu-sīla</em>), the morality of renunciants
(<em>pabbajita-sīla</em>), or something along these lines. The Buddha taught
the essence of moral conduct in a way that incorporates diverse and
detailed moral principles and precepts. It was not necessary for him to
bestow formal titles on some of these subsidiary guidelines for conduct;
for example, he mentioned the five precepts, the eight precepts, and the
ten precepts without giving them explicit names.</p>
<p>Because it is often forgotten, it should be emphasized that <em>sīla</em> does
not refer only to virtuous physical and verbal actions, but also
includes a pure and virtuous livelihood. The way one earns a living has
an important bearing on virtuous conduct.</p>
<p>In the scriptural classification of moral precepts, normally only the
main subjects are mentioned, e.g. to refrain from destroying living
creatures or to refrain from stealing. By glancing at these main
subjects, one may only see them in a negative, or negating, light. To
gain a complete and clear understanding of these precepts, one needs to
look at the Buddha’s words elaborating on their meanings. In the
teaching on the ten wholesome courses of action (<em>kusala-kammapatha</em>),
for instance, one sees that almost every factor is divided into two
parts. There is an aspect to be refrained from and an aspect to be
performed; a negating quality is followed by a positive quality. The
teaching begins with abstaining from an evil action (e.g. killing), and
this is followed by an encouragement to perform a good action that
opposes the unskilful action (e.g. compassionately assisting all living
creatures).</p>
<p>The Path consists of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom, which
must be fully integrated in order for the fruits of the Path to be
achieved. Although here the discussion focuses on moral conduct, one
needs to be aware that this is merely one stage of an integrated
process. When one advances on the Path, moral conduct must be linked
with the other two factors in order to reach true success.</p>
<p>Technically speaking, the fulfilment and perfection resulting from the
complete integration of the Path factors is called the ’unity of
spiritual qualities’ (<em>dhamma-sāmaggī</em>). Even at the highest level, of
complete awakening, there must be this integration of factors. When one
gains an appreciation of this integration of factors, although one may
be focusing on the factors pertaining to moral conduct, one will be
aware of the remaining factors and the role that they play.</p>
<p>The teaching on the ten wholesome courses of action expands the Path
factors in a way that may be applied by all human beings (these ten
factors are described as ’factors leading to true humanity’ –
<em>manussa-dhamma</em>). It is evident in this teaching that moral conduct is
accompanied by mental and wisdom development. (The first seven factors
pertain to moral conduct; factors eight and nine pertain to
concentration; and the tenth factor pertains to wisdom).</p>
<p>The five precepts, however, which is considered the most basic form of
acceptable moral conduct, encompasses only the stage of <em>sīla</em>, not of
<em>samādhi</em> or <em>paññā</em>. This indicates that the five precepts alone are
inadequate for truly advancing on the Buddhist path. When one is unable
to develop the higher spiritual qualities, at the very least one should
abstain from wickedness and try not to seriously harm others. {721}</p>
<p>Having said this, the five precepts are not excluded from the unity of
spiritual factors (<em>dhamma-sāmaggī</em>). In those circumstances when it was
appropriate to distinguish moral conduct as a distinct category, the
Buddha would prepare a complementary teaching containing factors
pertaining to the mind (<em>citta</em>) and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>). (Here, these
three factors are not placed together in a single group as they are in
the ten wholesome courses of action.) He would teach those laypeople who
began their spiritual practice by upholding the five precepts to
complete their training by developing the mind and wisdom, so that they
may become awakened disciples.</p>
<p>This alternative presentation of integrated spiritual factors is used as
a teaching specifically for householders and it usually contains four
factors: faith, virtuous conduct, generosity, and wisdom (occasionally
the fifth factor of learning is added). This group of factors is
mentioned very frequently in the Tipiṭaka; here is a concise summary of
this teaching:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup></p>
<p>After mentioning the means by which one gains victory in this world (by
properly managing one’s home, domestic help, financial earnings, etc.,
which are matters pertaining to immediate benefits –
<em>diṭṭhadhammikattha</em>), the Buddha speaks about the means by which one
gains victory in the world to come (pertaining to future benefits –
<em>samparāyikattha</em>):</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Possessing four qualities, Visākhā, a woman practises for victory in
the next world and makes ready for the next world. What four?….</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>And how is a woman accomplished in faith (saddhā)?…. Here, a
woman is endowed with faith. She has conviction in the awakening
of the Tathāgata (tathāgatabodhi-saddhā) thus: ’The Blessed One is
an arahant….’</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>And how is a woman accomplished in virtuous conduct (sīla)?….
Here, a woman abstains from the destruction of life … from
taking what is not given … from sexual misconduct … from false
speech … from spirits and intoxicants, the basis for
heedlessness….</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>And how is a woman accomplished in generosity (cāga)?…. Here, a
woman dwells at home with a heart devoid of the stain of
miserliness, freely generous, openhanded, delighting in
relinquishment, devoted to charity, delighting in giving and
sharing….</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>And how is a woman accomplished in wisdom (paññā)?…. Here, a
woman is wise; she possesses the wisdom that discerns arising and
passing away, which is noble and penetrative and leads to the
complete destruction of suffering….</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><em>A. IV. 269-71.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The fifth factor, which is desirable but not imperative, is ’learning’
(<em>suta</em>; learning by way of formal education, reading, listening, etc.),
which refers to acquiring the raw data for knowledge. If one develops
great learning (<em>bahussuta</em>), this is even more advantageous.</p>
<p>Many Buddhists are concerned only with moral conduct. They may be aware
of other aspects of the teachings, but their knowledge is often confused
and unsystematic, even though the Buddha clearly outlined a complete
spiritual development, of <em>sīla</em>, <em>samādhi</em>, and <em>paññā</em>. He reiterated
how householders should be endowed with faith (<em>saddhā</em>), moral conduct
(<em>sīla</em>; specifically the five precepts), learning (<em>suta</em>), generosity
(<em>cāga</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>). When one reaches this unity of spiritual
factors at this level, the noble path (<em>ariya-magga</em>) is accessible for
cultivation.</p>
<p>The Pali term <em>sīla</em> has a very broad scope of meaning; it can be used
in very specific contexts or in a general sense. And as mentioned
earlier, it is important to be able to distinguish this term from the
term <em>vinaya</em>. {722}</p>
<p>Principles of Dhamma may be divided into the three factors of moral
conduct (<em>sīla</em>), concentration (<em>samādhi</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>).
Concentration and wisdom pertain exclusively to Dhamma, whereas moral
conduct may be divided into a principle of Dhamma and also into a
conventional disciplinary code (<em>vinaya</em>). <em>Vinaya</em> is one aspect of
<em>sīla</em> (see the section ’<em>Sīla</em> on the Level of Dhamma and <em>Sīla</em> on the
Level of Vinaya’ below). {723}</p>
<p>Following are some teachings by the Buddha summarizing basic moral
principles in relation to ordinary people and clarifying the meaning and
essence of the term <em>sīla</em>.</p>
<h2 id="fundamental-principles-of-morality"><a class="header" href="#fundamental-principles-of-morality">Fundamental Principles of Morality</a></h2>
<p>Let us review the three Path factors pertaining to morality:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Right speech (<em>sammā-vācā</em>):</p>
<div class="list-decimal">
<ol>
<li>
<p>To relinquish wrong speech (<em>musā-vāda</em>); to abstain from
telling lies; this factor includes speaking truthfully
(<em>sacca-vācā</em>).</p>