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                        <h1 id="the-supernatural-and-the-divine"><a class="header" href="#the-supernatural-and-the-divine">The Supernatural and the Divine</a></h1>
<p><em>The Supernatural and the Divine</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/opening-pages/supernatural-p980.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/opening-pages/supernatural-p980.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
  <a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/opening-pages/supernatural-p980.pdf" target="_blank">
    (Open large size)
  </a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>If one poses the question whether Buddhism affirms the existence of
supernatural phenomena (see
Note <a href="#note-supernatural">The Term ’Supernatural’</a>) and celestial beings, the answer based
on literal evidence in the Tipiṭaka and other scriptures is
unequivocally yes. Scriptural confirmation for this reply is extensive
and abundant.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> Having said this, it is difficult for people to reach
an agreement or consensus on whether these things truly exist or not.</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">The Term ’Supernatural’</span><a id="note-supernatural"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Trans.: note that I use the term ’supernatural’ here in the sense of
’exceeding the ordinary’, ’miraculous’, ’belonging to a higher realm’,
or ’an event that appears inexplicable by the laws of nature’. As the
venerable author points out in chapter 4 of <em>Buddhadhamma</em> on
Dependent Origination, the Buddhist teachings do not recognize a
supernatural entity, as existing above nature and having power over
it. In a similar vein, the term ’supernatural’ here does not imply a
reality outside the natural world or a power going beyond natural
forces. In this sense, the term ’supermundane’, although not a common
word, may be more accurate in this context.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Many people feel that a belief in these things has harmful consequences,
a viewpoint that has led some scholars to interpret these phenomena in a
metaphorical way. It is not necessary here to examine these
interpretations at length. Even if one accepts the literal
interpretation that these things exist, the Buddhist teachings contain
adequate safeguards to help prevent superstitious beliefs or an
obsessive need to prove the validity of the supernatural.</p>
<p>Many people, from the ancient past to the present day, have believed in
or feared ghosts, spirits, divine powers, the mystical, and the
miraculous. Buddhism boldly asserts the existence of these things while
declaring a freedom for humans in relation to them. The Buddhist
teachings set forth principles that help people benefit from their
relationship to supernatural phenomena. At the very least, upholding
these principles causes less harm than trying to discover incontestable
proof for the existence or non-existence of such things. It is important
to know what these Buddhist principles are and how to apply them to
daily life.</p>
<p>Buddhism is not interested in the debate whether supernatural phenomena
and divine beings truly exist or not, and it discourages people from
wasting time trying to prove the existence of these things. Buddhism is
interested rather in people’s attitude and proper conduct in relation to
the supernatural. In Buddhism, it is less important to know whether
gods, spirits, ghosts, psychic powers, or miracles exist than to know
(assuming that these things do exist) what sort of bearing they have on
human life and to know the proper relationship to them. {942}</p>
<p>Some people may counter that one cannot know how to properly relate to
these things until one has first proven their existence. But it is
precisely the obsessive desire to prove the existence (or non-existence)
of these things that has led to so much unskilful behaviour in relation
to them. And to this day no definitive proof has been found either way.</p>
<p>Supernatural phenomena, including psychic powers and divine beings, are
unprovable: it is impossible to offer indisputable evidence for their
existence or non-existence. Believers in these things are unable to
convince non-believers of their existence, while disbelievers are
likewise unable to present clear-cut evidence to believers of their
non-existence, whereby these latter people relinquish any lingering
belief in their validity. Both parties abide on the level of faith or
belief: they believe these things exist, or believe they do not exist,
or they outright reject their existence. (Even if one has truly
witnessed these things, one is unable to accurately share this
realization with others.)</p>
<p>Apart from there being no undisputed proof that these things exist or do
not exist, these things are elusive or evasive: occasionally an exciting
trace of these things leads to a feeling of certainty in their
existence, but as soon as one tries to capture the phenomenon, the
feeling proves unsatisfactory. Even at times when a person feels
convinced of these things’ existence, doubts arise; the more one
searches for them, the more elusive they become; the more elusive they
are, the more fascinating they become. An obsession with supernatural
phenomena may thus lead people to almost drift away from this world.</p>
<p>Efforts to prove the existence of such unverifiable and mysterious
phenomena are a waste of time and energy and create all kinds of
problems, both individual and social. As long as effort is being
expended on the futile search for definitive proof, believers and
disbelievers argue with one another, refute each other’s theories, cause
discord, and end up going their own ways. They are unable to modify
their attitudes and behaviour because they are waiting for conclusive
evidence, which never comes. No true consensus or unity is ever reached.</p>
<p>On a social or political level, a lack of consensus or agreement on
these issues may lead to coercion or even persecution. Believers may
then force non-believers into adopting a particular faith. Conversely,
non-believers may prohibit believers from practising their beliefs, as
is seen in some political ideologies that hold entirely to the
scientific method. If government officials in such political systems
think that people hold foolish or superstitious beliefs, they may force
the people to abandon their beliefs and to adopt the state ideology (of
repudiation of supernatural phenomena).</p>
<p>But this coercion does not solve the problem at its source; it does not
’clear’ people from doubt;<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> force merely leads to a suppression of
faith. {943} Such control can be maintained as long as the force or
persuasion is strong, but as soon as these weaken, the suppressed faith
sprouts, blossoms and spreads. And when this happens, the beliefs and
practices may be as irrational, directionless, and harmful as before,
without having been attended to and corrected.</p>
<p>From one perspective, the supernatural exists primarily as a set of
beliefs in the minds of unawakened persons, and these beliefs are liable
to fluctuation. Some people originally repudiate the supernatural and
look upon believers with contempt, but after they have what they believe
to be a mystical experience their perspective shifts completely and they
become zealous believers. Without access to teachings clarifying a
proper relationship to these things, they become more spellbound and
preoccupied with them than those who believe from the beginning.
Likewise, some people who have had a firm faith in these things later
have an experience suggesting the object of their faith is
unsatisfactory or uncertain, and as a consequence their faith is shaken
or they become outright disbelievers.</p>
<p>This being the case, many people are caught up with the question whether
these things exist or not, while at the same time they lack practical
measures that help to prevent the harm in holding fixed beliefs and
opinions. Buddhism emphasizes practical considerations: it teaches those
things that every person can apply and benefit from, suitable to their
individual level of maturity and ability. In reference to supernatural
phenomena, Buddhism offers clear teachings: the emphasis is on one’s
relationship to them and on knowing one’s reasons for adopting certain
attitudes and behaviour in relation to them. In other words, it is not
crucial to believe or disbelieve in these things; rather, a person
should develop a proper relationship to them.</p>
<p>Both believers and non-believers can follow the Buddhist principles on
this subject; if they do, their conduct in relation to questions of the
supernatural will differ in only a negligible way. Furthermore, this
conduct will benefit both parties (of believers and disbelievers),
because each side will develop mutual care and consideration. Believers
will uphold their faith in a way that does not cause harm to themselves
or others, while non-believers will respect believers and may be able to
advise them on how to relate to the objects of their faith
constructively.</p>
<p>This principle of balanced practice – of establishing an appropriate
attitude and relationship to things that cannot be proven and need not
be directly realized for spiritual fulfilment – is a unique
characteristic of Buddhism, distinguishing it from other religions and
philosophies, including modern ideologies.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup></p>
<p>When based on these proper principles, there is no harm in searching for
proof of supernatural phenomena. If people have this special interest
and do not cause trouble to others, then we can maintain an open mind to
such a pursuit. It can be seen as similar to research in other fields of
knowledge. {944}</p>
<p>Because matters concerning the supernatural are unprovable, people’s
attitude and relationship to these things is crucial. And because these
things exist primarily as a set of beliefs in people’s minds, the
particular belief in either the existence or non-existence of these
things is of minor importance.</p>
<p>In sum, the existence or non-existence of supernatural phenomena,
including divine beings and psychics powers, have little bearing on the
key teachings and tenets of Buddhism. Even though miracles and divine
beings are claimed by the scriptures to exist, the practice and highest
realization of Buddhism is possible without a person having any
engagement with these things.</p>
<p>In relation to this subject the Buddha said:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p><em>The Buddha:</em> What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Whether I perform
miracles, which are qualities of supreme persons, or not, does the
Dhamma that I have taught to reach the goal lead to the total
destruction of suffering?</p>
<p><em>Sunakkhatta:</em> Lord, whether the Lord performs miracles, which are
qualities of supreme persons, or not, the Dhamma that the Blessed One
has taught to reach the goal leads to the total destruction of
suffering.</p>
<p><em>The Buddha:</em> What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Whether I make known
that which is considered the origin of the world or not, does the
Dhamma that I have taught to reach the goal lead to the total
destruction of suffering?</p>
<p><em>Sunakkhatta:</em> Lord, whether the Lord makes known that which is
considered the origin of the world or not, the Dhamma that the Blessed
One has taught to reach the goal leads to the total destruction of
suffering.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> {945}</p>
<p><em>D. III. 3-4.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h2 id="miracles-and-psychic-powers"><a class="header" href="#miracles-and-psychic-powers">Miracles and Psychic Powers</a></h2>
<h3 id="introduction-1"><a class="header" href="#introduction-1">Introduction</a></h3>
<p>Although psychic powers are classified as expressions of ’higher
knowledge’ (abhiññā),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> psychic powers of all kinds, including the
’divine ear’, clairvoyance, telepathy, and recollection of past lives,
are mundane forms of higher knowledge. They are connected to mundane
phenomena, belong to the domain of unawakened beings, and remain under
the sway of mental defilement.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup></p>
<p>People achieved these mundane forms of higher knowledge even before the
time of the Buddha; they are not dependent on the arising of Buddhism.
Psychic powers do not comprise the essence of Buddhism and they are not
necessary for reaching its goal.</p>
<p>The essence of Buddhism, and that which accompanies the arising of
Buddhism, is knowledge leading to the cessation of suffering and mental
impurity. This knowledge, classified as the sixth (and final) form of
higher knowledge, is called ’knowledge leading to the end of the taints’
(<em>āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa</em>). It is a transcendent form of knowledge
(<em>lokuttara-abhiññā</em>), exclusive to awakened beings. It leads unawakened
people to deliverance and purity, to freedom from worldly constraints,
and to complete realization as a ’noble being’ (<em>ariya-puggala</em>).</p>
<p>The mundane forms of higher knowledge can decline, whereas transcendent
supreme knowledge is unshakeable. Achieving transcendent supreme
knowledge is superior to achieving all five of the mundane forms of
higher knowledge, but achieving the mundane forms in addition to
transcendent supreme knowledge is considered outstanding and a sign of
perfection. Transcendent supreme knowledge is essential for a truly
virtuous life; mundane forms of higher knowledge are not essential, but
rather enhance a person’s personal qualities.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup></p>
<h3 id="three-kinds-of-miracles"><a class="header" href="#three-kinds-of-miracles">Three Kinds of Miracles</a></h3>
<p>The Buddha classified psychic powers as one of the three kinds of
miracles (pāṭihāriya):<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Iddhi-pāṭihāriya</em>: the miracle of performing psychic powers.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Ādesanā-pāṭihāriya</em>: the miracle of mind-reading.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Anusāsanī-pāṭihāriya</em>: the miracle of instruction: the teaching of
truth, which leads to true insight and fulfilment.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Here is how these miracles are described in the Pali Canon:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The miracle of performing psychic powers: There are some who perform
various kinds of supernormal power: having been one, he becomes
many; having been many, he becomes one; he appears and vanishes; he
goes unhindered through a wall, through a rampart, through a
mountain as if through space; he dives in and out of the earth as if
it were water; he walks on water without sinking as if it were
earth; he flies through the air like a bird; with his hand he
touches and strokes the sun and the moon, so powerful and mighty; he
exercises mastery with his body even as far as the Brahma world.
{946}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The miracle of mind-reading: Here, a monk reads the minds of other
beings, of other people, reads their mental states, their thoughts
and considerations, and declares: ’This is how your mind is, this is
how it inclines, this is in your heart.’<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>There are some who by means of a sign, declare: ’This is how your mind
is, this is how it inclines, this is in your heart.’ And however many
such declarations he makes, they are exactly so and not otherwise.
Another does not make his declarations by means of a sign, but after
hearing voices of humans, of spirits or devas declares: ’This is how
your mind is, this is how it inclines, this is in your heart’ … or
by hearing the sound of a person’s applied and sustained thoughts as
he thinks, declares: ’This is how your mind is, this is how it
inclines, this is in your heart’ … or by mentally penetrating the
mind of someone in a thought-free state of concentration, knows
clearly the mental volitional formation in that person’s mind, and
knows that after this volitional formation he will have this train of
thought. And however many such declarations he makes, they are exactly
so and not otherwise.</p>
<p><em>D. III. 103-104; Ps. II. 227-8.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The marvel of mind-reading (<em>ādesanā-pāṭihāriya</em>) appears similar to
telepathy (<em>cetopariya-ñāṇa</em> or <em>paracitta-vijānana</em>), but it differs in
that the former is still at the level of intuitive perception; it has
not yet reached the level of ’direct knowledge’ (<em>ñāṇa</em>).</p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li><strong>3.</strong> The miracle of instruction: Here, a monks gives instruction as
follows: ’Reflect in this way, do not reflect in that way; pay
attention in this way, do not pay attention in that way; you should
abandon this, and dwell in the attainment of that.’</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p>In the Kevaddha Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya this passage is followed by a
description of the Buddha appearing in the world and teaching the
Dhamma, which instils faith in people, leading them to go forth as
renunciants, develop good conduct, sense restraint, mindfulness and
clear comprehension, seek solitude, develop the jhānas, and attain the
six forms of higher knowledge, ending with knowledge of the destruction
of the taints and the realization of arahantship. All of these results
of teaching are examples of the ’miracle of instruction’.</p>
<p>Here are the literal meanings of the Pali words mentioned above:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Pāṭihāriya</em> (’miracle’): to ’beat back’, ’drive away’, or ’destroy’
something that is unfavourable or hostile.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Iddhi</em> (’psychic power’): ’achievement’, ’accomplishment’.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Ādesanā</em> (’mind-reading’): to ’indicate’, ’reveal’, ’point out’,
’make clear’.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Anusāsanī</em>: ’repeated instruction’.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Applying these definitions, the Paṭisambhidāmagga explains the three
kinds of miracles in a new way. It states that all virtuous qualities,
like renunciation, lovingkindness, jhāna, insight into selflessness, and
the path of arahantship are <em>iddhi-pāṭihāriya</em> in the sense that they
lead to specific achievements and eliminate negative qualities like
sensual desire, ill-will, and other mental defilements. All virtuous
qualities are <em>ādesanā-pāṭihāriya</em> in the sense that they only arise in
the presence of a clear heart and unclouded mind. And virtuous qualities
are <em>anusāsanī-pāṭihāriya</em> because the teachings have emphasized their
proper application, cultivation, development, and balance.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> Although
these are not common explanations for these miracles, they offer a
thought-provoking perspective.</p>
<h3 id="psychic-powers-are-not-essential"><a class="header" href="#psychic-powers-are-not-essential">Psychic Powers Are Not Essential</a></h3>
<p>The householder Kevaddha once went to the Buddha and asked him to
perform a miracle:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Lord, this city of Nāḷandā is rich, prosperous, populous, and full of
people who have faith in the Blessed One. It would be well if the Lord
were to request some monk to perform a superhuman miracle. In this way
the citizens of Nāḷandā would come to have even more faith – would
come to have boundless faith – in the Blessed One.</p>
<p>The Buddha replied: Kevaddha, this is not the way I teach the Dhamma
to the monks, by saying: ’Go, monks, and perform superhuman feats for
the white-clothed laypeople.’ {947}</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Buddha goes on to say that of the three kinds of miracles, he
disfavours psychic powers and mind-reading, because he sees their
potential harm: when hearing about these things, those who believe in
their validity become further convinced, while those who are skeptical
deny their validity. They may claim that a monk who performs these feats
has resorted to using a magical charm (<em>gandhārī</em>), a mind-reading charm
(<em>maṇīkā</em>), or some other trick. This disparity of opinion is followed
by arguments and disagreements.</p>
<p>The Buddha then explains the meaning and value of the miracle of
instruction, saying that it can be applied and its benefits realized by
everyone, until one reaches knowledge of the destruction of the taints,
which is the goal of Buddhism.</p>
<p>He gave an example of a monk who was highly skilled in psychic powers
and who wanted to know where the four great elements cease without
remainder.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup> This monk travelled to the celestial realms in search of
an answer to this question, pressing on until he arrived at the Brahma
realms. But finally, unable to get an answer, he returned to the human
realm in order to ask the Buddha to explain the true nature of the
world. This story shows how psychic powers are limited, often
ineffective, and not the essence of the Buddhist teachings.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup></p>
<p>On another occasion the brahmin Saṅgārava mentioned to the Buddha a
conversation occurring among the king’s courtiers in the palace on the
following subject:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Formerly there were fewer monks, but there were more who displayed
miracles of supernormal power transcending the human level. But now
there are more monks, but fewer who display miracles of supernormal
power transcending the human level.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Buddha replied by explaining the three kinds of miracles. He then
asked Saṅgārava which one of these three appeals to him as the most
excellent and sublime. Saṅgārava answered that a knowledge and
realization of the miracles of psychic powers and mind-reading is
restricted to those who perform them; this knowledge cannot be
transferred to others. From the outside, they appear as having the
nature of a magician’s trick. Therefore, the miracle of instruction is
superior and more sublime. The recipients of this instruction can
reflect on, apply, and realize these teachings, leading to the end of
suffering.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup></p>
<h3 id="noble-psychic-powers"><a class="header" href="#noble-psychic-powers">Noble Psychic Powers</a></h3>
<p>Another passage in the Pali Canon describes two kinds of psychic
powers:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Psychic powers that are not ’noble’: psychic powers accompanied by
mental defilement and acting as a ’basis for suffering’ (<em>upadhi</em>),
i.e. psychic powers as normally understood and as discussed earlier.
Here, through determined effort, a renunciant attains liberation of
the mind (<em>cetovimutti</em>) and performs various supernormal feats,
like projecting mind-made images, walking through walls, flying
through the air, diving into the earth, or walking on water.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>’Noble’ psychic powers: psychic powers free from mental defilement
and not acting as a basis for suffering. In this case a monk
exercises self-mastery over his perceptions and is able to control
his responses to sense impressions. He can view a repulsive object
as not repulsive; for instance, he can look at a person whose face
is disfigured and relate to this person with kindness and
friendship. And he can view an attractive object as unattractive;
for instance, he can see a charming, enticing body as repugnant. Or
he can remain equanimous, relinquishing both the attractive and the
repugnant, for example while reflecting on things in an unbiased way
and seeing into their true nature. {948}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>This passage confirms that psychic powers as normally understood – the
ability to perform amazing and fantastic feats – are neither praised in
Buddhism nor are they the essence of Buddhism. In Buddhism, the highest
form of psychic power is the ability to control one’s responses to sense
impressions and to develop mental self-mastery. This form of power
causes no harm to oneself or others.</p>
<p>Those who exercise the former kind of psychic powers may not be able to
exercise the latter, and they occasionally apply their psychic abilities
to indulge their defilements. The latter kind of psychic powers,
however, fosters wholesome qualities, eradicates defilement, and keeps
the mind from being seduced by greed, hatred and delusion.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup></p>
<p>The fact that the Buddha established a training rule forbidding monks
from revealing psychic powers to laypeople also confirms that he did not
encourage their use.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup></p>
<p>As stated above, psychic powers are a form of mundane attainment, which
enhance the attributes of those who have attained transcendent
knowledge, helping them to better perform their activities and assist
other human beings. The Buddha referred to someone who is endowed with
the three kinds of miraculous gifts as a ’fully accomplished one’, ’one
who has reached the goal’, ’one who is supreme among gods and
humans’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup> {949}</p>
<p>As stated earlier, however, the miracle of instruction is the principal
and constant factor, while the remaining two miracles are supplementary.
When there is a good reason to perform the miracles of psychic powers
and mind-reading, they should be applied merely in the early stages,
preparing the way for the miracle of instruction. Instruction is the
goal and consummation, as will be discussed at more length below.</p>
<h3 id="dangers-of-psychic-powers"><a class="header" href="#dangers-of-psychic-powers">Dangers of Psychic Powers</a></h3>
<p>Psychic powers can be harmful both for people who possess them and for
those associating with these people. Unenlightened people who possess
these powers may be intoxicated by them:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup> they may become conceited,
feeling superior and denigrating others; they may become obsessed with
the material gains and honours accruing from such powers; they may
become dishonest; or they may use these powers for evil purposes, as in
the case of Ven. Devadatta.</p>
<p>At least, the attachment to or delight in psychic powers prevents a
person from realizing higher spiritual qualities and from cleansing the
mind from impurities. And because the psychic abilities of unawakened
persons are subject to decline, the anxiety around protecting these
powers is an obstacle, which interferes with wise reflection and the
effective application of insight. Psychic powers are thus classified as
obstacles to insight meditation (<em>iddhi-palibodha</em>), which should be
removed or eliminated by one who is developing wisdom.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup></p>
<p>There is a high likelihood that people associating with a person who has
psychic powers may also be harmed. The primary danger is that these
people will become victims. Someone possessing (or pretending to
possess) psychic powers may boast of these powers in order to seek
personal gain.</p>
<p>Note that those people who practise correctly and who have aptitude in
this area only exercise psychic powers in those circumstances when they
deem them appropriate as a channel leading to proper instruction. For if
not to offer Dhamma teachings, why would someone display such powers
other than to seek personal fame or material gain?</p>
<p>It is thus important to remember that psychic powers should always be
accompanied by proper instruction. If someone reveals or claims to have
psychic powers without these powers being a bridge leading to the
’miracle of instruction’, their behaviour can be considered
incorrect.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup> {950}</p>
<p>They may have bad or deceitful intentions, they may be seeking personal
gain, or they may simply have a deluded understanding of psychic powers.
This same principle can be applied in the case of sacred objects or
amulets: someone who uses such objects when relating to people, without
providing any form of teaching – without leading them to the
development of wisdom, to an understanding of the truth, and to a
gradual freedom from these objects – is practising incorrectly and
leading people in a wrong direction. (See
Note <a href="#note-wrong-direction">Leading in the Wrong Direction</a>)</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Leading in the Wrong Direction</span><a id="note-wrong-direction"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>This subject includes sacred and magical objects, occult powers, and
those things the Buddha referred to as the base or ’beastly’ arts
(<em>tiracchāna-vijjā</em>). The base arts are forms of knowledge that bar
the way to heaven and to Nibbāna, or external teachings that do not
accord with the goal of Buddhism. They mostly involve divination,
prophesying, and the treatment of disease, which for a bhikkhu are
considered faulty and harmful from a moral point of view if he
practises these arts to make a living or to seek personal gain.</p>
<p><em>Tiracchāna-vijjā</em> are distinct from <em>iddhi-pāṭihāriya</em>.
<em>Tiracchāna-vijjā</em> are discussed at D. I. 9-12 and mentioned
repeatedly in the Sīlakkhandhavagga of the Dīgha Nikāya. There are
precepts forbidding the learning and teaching of these arts at, e.g.:
Vin. II. 140; Vin. IV. 306; explained at, e.g.: DA. I. 131; Nd1A. II.
402.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Even if a person does not fall victim to someone who claims to possess
psychic powers, a fascination or preoccupation with these things runs
counter to two important Buddhist principles:</p>
<p>First, Buddhism teaches the path to liberation. Because psychic powers
are not of essential importance to Buddhism – they are not directly
related to the goal of Buddhism and do not help people to be free from
mental defilement – a fascination with these things tends to be a waste
of time and energy, which could be used to practise the Dhamma.</p>
<p>Second, those people who associate with someone claiming psychic or
sacred powers generally wish for help from supernatural or divine
forces, say for good luck or wealth. This behaviour is inconsistent with
a central tenet of Buddhism, which is a teaching of action
(<em>kamma-vāda</em>), a teaching of activity (<em>kiriya-vāda</em>), and a teaching
of effort (<em>viriya-vāda</em>): Buddhism teaches people to seek results
through determined, deliberate action in line with cause and effect.</p>
<p>The wish for results through supplication to divine or supernatural
forces can lead to inactivity or laziness. It leads to a lack of effort,
a lack of urgency to undertake necessary tasks or to avoid harm, and it
contradicts the principle of heedfulness.</p>
<p>If one takes an interest in psychic powers it is better that one
develops these powers oneself (although this still may be a waste of
time), because the wish for results from others’ powers or from divine
forces is a reliance on external things and makes a person more
dependent on them. Instead of leading to more independence, this
reliance on external things makes a person less grounded and more
confused; a person’s resourcefulness, inner strength, and
self-confidence is diminished. The reliance on external things
contradicts another basic principle of Buddhism, which teaches
self-reliance – being a refuge unto oneself. Buddhism teaches the path
to liberation, which at the end transcends faith and leads to pure
wisdom. The Path begins with dependence on the wisdom of the
Teacher,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup> who is a ’spiritual friend’ (<em>kalyāṇamitta</em>). Eventually,
one can abandon even this form of dependence and stand on one’s own two
feet, without the support from a teacher.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup> {951}</p>
<h3 id="proper-relationship-to-psychic-powers"><a class="header" href="#proper-relationship-to-psychic-powers">Proper Relationship to Psychic Powers</a></h3>
<p>Regarding how the display of psychic powers affects people in general,
let us look at the conduct of the Buddha and his disciples, who were
exceptionally skilled in psychic powers. As mentioned earlier, the
Buddha clearly disfavoured the miracles of performing psychic powers and
mind-reading, but consistently supported and applied the miracle of
instruction; instruction lies at the heart of the Buddha’s activities.
There were instances, however, when the Buddha performed psychic powers.</p>
<p>By looking at these occasions, we can conclude that the Buddha only
exercised psychic powers when he was subduing (or ’taming’) those who
possessed these powers – those who gave great import to these powers or
who with arrogance felt superior to others – so that they would abandon
their infatuation with them. He performed psychic powers to subdue
psychic powers, to encourage a person who was fascinated in or conceited
about them to realize their limitation, and to see things that are
superior to them – to study and recognize things which the Buddha
revealed through the miracle of instruction. This is similar to the
aforementioned principle of applying psychic powers in conjunction with
instruction, but here the application is limited to those who are
intoxicated by psychic powers and who express a stubborn pride when
encountering the Buddha, for example in the story of subduing the god
Brahma.</p>
<p>There are some stories of the Buddha’s chief disciples combining the
display of psychic powers with instruction, to people who were
fascinated with these powers, for example the story of Ven. Sāriputta
instructing Ven. Devadatta’s disciples with the miracle of mind-reading,
and similar stories of Ven. Mahā Moggallāna exercising psychic powers.</p>
<p>There are a few stories of monks revealing psychic powers to help
people, but there is not a single instance in the Pali Canon of monks
exercising these powers as a consequence of people’s request for
them.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn23-1"><a href="#fn-fn23">23</a></sup> There were instances when people made this request because
they wanted to witness these powers, but the Buddha established a
training rule forbidding monks from displaying such powers to laypeople,
as mentioned earlier.</p>
<p>In everyday life, people must live with other human beings and live
under ordinary circumstances. Rather than relying on invisible, external
forces, which have no direct connection to people, Buddhism emphasizes
how it is better to train and discipline oneself, to develop knowledge
and skill so that one can solve problems using ordinary, rational
methods and reach success through righteous means. The Buddha defined
the ability leading to success as a ’power’ (<em>iddhi</em>), which accords
with the Buddhist teachings. This ability is twofold: material power
(<em>āmisa-iddhi</em>) and spiritual power (<em>dhamma-iddhi</em>), the latter being
the leading principle.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn24-1"><a href="#fn-fn24">24</a></sup> {952}</p>
<p>There are two primary points revealing the limitations of psychic
powers, along with all forms of sacred or supernormal forces, revealing
that these powers are not of essential importance to Buddhism, are not
related to the goal of Buddha-Dhamma, are unnecessary for walking the
Buddhist path, and offer no true security or safety:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>From the perspective of wisdom, supernatural powers cannot directly
give rise to wisdom, to the penetration of truth, and to an
understanding of phenomena as they really are. An example of this
limitation is the story of the monk who possessed psychic powers and
went in search of an answer throughout all realms of existence until
he arrived at the realm of Brahma, who claims to have created the
world, yet this monk’s quest was in vain. A similar story describes
the rishi who unsuccessfully travelled in search of the end of the
universe until he died.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn25-1"><a href="#fn-fn25">25</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>From the perspective of the mind, psychic powers are unable to truly
eliminate mental defilements or to end suffering. When the mind is
confused, depressed, agitated, or overwhelmed by greed, hatred and
delusion, these powers are unable to lead to freedom; even if one
suppresses these negative states of mind through the power of jhāna,
this solution is only temporary. Whenever one exits the state of
concentration and faces ordinary life, the defilements return to
disturb and harass, and to cause suffering. Even worse, psychic
powers may be used to serve the defilements, as happened in the case
of Ven. Devadatta.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn26-1"><a href="#fn-fn26">26</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<h2 id="divine-beings"><a class="header" href="#divine-beings">Divine Beings</a></h2>
<h3 id="human-beings-and-divine-beings"><a class="header" href="#human-beings-and-divine-beings">Human Beings and Divine Beings</a></h3>
<p>Most of the material in the preceding section on miracles and psychic
powers also applies to the subject of divine beings (devatā). (See
Note <a href="#note-devata">Divine Beings (Devatā)</a>) People generally take an interest in divine
beings for practical reasons: they wish and pray for help from divine
beings, who possess special powers, in the same way as they seek help
from other forms of supernatural powers. The aforementioned principles,
especially on the advantages and potential harm of supernatural powers,
are therefore relevant to the subject of divine beings. There are,
however, some additional matters for consideration.</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Divine Beings (Devatā)</span><a id="note-devata"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>The words <em>deva</em> or <em>devatā</em> encompass all divine beings, including
Brahma gods. Divine beings are categorized into three groups:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>devas of the sensual sphere; those beings attached to sensuality;
the abodes of these beings are sometimes referred to as the ’six
heavens connected to sensuality’ (<em>chakāmāvacara-sagga</em>): the
realm of the Four Great Kings (<em>cātummahārājikā</em>), the realm of
the Thirty-Three gods (<em>tāvatiṁsā</em>); the realm of the Yāma gods
(<em>yāmā</em>); the realm of the contented gods (<em>tusitā</em>); the realm of
the gods who rejoice in their own creations (<em>nimmānaratī</em>); the
realm of gods who lord over the creation of others
(<em>paranimmitavasavattī</em>);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>divine beings of the fine material plane (<em>rūpa</em> Brahmas), of
which there are sixteen levels; and</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>divine beings of the formless plane (<em>arūpa</em> Brahmas).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><em>Comp.: Vīthimuttaparicchedo, Paṭisandhicatukkaṁ.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Generally speaking, all forms of divine beings up to the highest levels
of Brahma gods are companions in birth, old age, suffering and death,
companions in the round of rebirth (<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>). Moreover, as is
the case with human beings, the majority of these divine beings are
unawakened beings (<em>puthujjana</em>), possessing mental defilements.
Although some divine beings are enlightened, most of them realized
enlightenment in a previous life as a human being. Although divine
beings are ranked as superior to human beings in spiritual qualities,
the celestial realms and the human realm are so similar that they are
both classified as a ’happy destination’ (<em>sugati</em>). {953}</p>
<p>In some respects divine beings have an advantage over human beings,
while in other respects human beings have the advantage. On one occasion
the Buddha compared the residents of India (<em>Jambudīpa</em> – ’Land of the
Rose-apple Trees’) with the gods of Tāvatiṁsā heaven, and claimed that
the gods are superior to humans in three aspects: divine age, divine
beauty, and divine happiness, while humans are superior to the gods in
three aspects: courage, mindfulness, and the practice of the holy life
(i.e. the practice of the noble path – <em>ariya-magga</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn27-1"><a href="#fn-fn27">27</a></sup></p>
<p>Normally, humans consider themselves inferior to divine beings and want
to be reborn in heaven, but divine beings consider rebirth as a human
being to be a ’happy destination’, as confirmed by the Buddha: <em>The
human state, monks, is the devas’ reckoning of a good destination</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn28-1"><a href="#fn-fn28">28</a></sup>
When a divine being is about to pass away, the other devas invoke a
blessing so that this being may take birth as a human, since the human
realm is a place where one can choose to perform wholesome, virtuous
deeds and give oneself fully to Dhamma practice (of course, one can also
give oneself fully to unwholesome actions).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn29-1"><a href="#fn-fn29">29</a></sup></p>
<p>The Buddha considered birth as one of the gods, who live an
exceptionally long time, as a wasted opportunity for practising the holy
life.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn30-1"><a href="#fn-fn30">30</a></sup> One can even call such a birth bad luck. Divine beings
experience undiluted happiness, which tends to lead to heedlessness and
to weakly established mindfulness. The human realm contains a mixture of
happiness and suffering, and it offers a wide range of experiences and
lessons. If a human being knows how to properly direct attention he or
she will gain understanding, develop mindfulness that is agile and
alert, develop self-discipline, and progress in the ’noble qualities’
(<em>ariya-dhamma</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn31-1"><a href="#fn-fn31">31</a></sup></p>
<p>The human realm lies between the heavenly realms and the ’unhappy
destinations’ (<em>apāya</em>), for instance the hell realms. The unhappy
destinations are inhabited by beings who are evil or of base spiritual
qualities. Although some of these beings can be considered good, they
have fallen into these realms because unskilful deeds have borne fruit
and dragged them down. The celestial realms are inhabited by beings who
are comparatively virtuous. Although some of these beings are of bad
character, they were born in heaven because wholesome deeds lifted the
person up.</p>
<p>The human realm which lies in the middle is like a road junction – a
place for both divine beings and beings from states of perdition to pass
through. It is a place where beings from all realms of existence come to
produce <em>kamma</em>. It is where evil beings better themselves and prepare
for heaven, where virtuous beings commit evil deeds and prepare for
hell, and where wise beings stop producing kamma, disentangle
themselves, propagate the Dhamma, and find freedom from the cycle of
birth and death.</p>
<p>There are four levels of unhappy destinations. Beings in each
distinctive level possess a similar degree of unwholesome qualities
(<em>pāpa-dhamma</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn32-1"><a href="#fn-fn32">32</a></sup> The celestial realms contain many different levels
with ascending degrees of refinement; beings in each level possess a
similar degree of virtue. Only the human realm is a centre for both vice
and virtue of all hues: it contains evil people who resemble the beings
from the deepest recesses of hell; it contains virtuous, refined people,
similar to the highest Brahma gods; and it contains beings who have
transcended all states of existence and whom even the gods venerate.
{954}</p>
<p>The spiritual qualities and general capabilities of humans and divine
beings are very similar, but human beings possess a greater opportunity
for spiritual development and self-improvement. Generally speaking,
devas are superior and more proficient than humans, but when humans
elevate themselves by spiritual cultivation, they are equivalent to or
even surpass the gods in virtue and ability (although from the
perspective of Dhamma, it is not encouraged to view this as a
competition).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn33-1"><a href="#fn-fn33">33</a></sup></p>
<h3 id="obsolete-form-of-relating-to-the-divine"><a class="header" href="#obsolete-form-of-relating-to-the-divine">Obsolete Form of Relating to the Divine</a></h3>
<p>Religions existing in India before the time of the Buddha were
polytheistic, but their adherents also believed in a chief God, who
created the world and all phenomena. It was not considered possible for
human beings to be superior to this God. People related to the gods
through prayer and entreaty, seeking ways to please and favour them, for
example through hymns of praise, worship, propitiatory offerings, and
sacrifice. Alternatively, people used other forms of supplication, by
pressuring the gods into taking an interest, provoking them until they
were worried and forced into lending a helping hand or appeasing the
supplicants. This latter method employed various religious and ascetic
practices of self-mortification and self-punishment. In sum, there are
two traditional ways of relating to divine beings:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Through prayer and supplication; through offerings, worship, and
sacrifice, similar to the pleadings of a child with its parents.
Sometimes this behaviour turns into an effort to flatter or bribe
the higher powers.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Through coercion, compelling the devas through various ascetic
practices or religious rituals to act according to one’s wishes.
This resembles a child who, punching and biting, tries to force his
parents to pay attention and satisfy his desires.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Both ways boil down to a search for personal gain and involve dependence
on an external force. When the Buddha began teaching, he encouraged
abandoning these two ways of practice, and it is this abandonment of
them that distinguishes Buddhism on this subject of divine beings. By
abandoning these practices, Buddhism is able to offer a more rational
approach, to point clearly to the advantages and harm of different ways
of acting, and to establish a new, more appropriate relationship to the
divine. {955}</p>
<h3 id="harmful-effects-of-depending-on-divine-beings"><a class="header" href="#harmful-effects-of-depending-on-divine-beings">Harmful Effects of Depending on Divine Beings</a></h3>
<p>Reliance on divine beings has similar limitations and creates similar
obstacles to those described above in relation to psychic powers. From
the perspective of wisdom, devas, like human beings, are on the whole
still ignorant of the truth. This is evident from the story of the monk
(mentioned earlier) who travelled through the various heaven realms
asking a question, which even the highest Brahma could not answer, and
the story of the Buddha subduing the Brahma named Baka.</p>
<p>From the perspective of the mind, devas are similar to human beings in
that most of them are unawakened – they still have a degree of mental
defilement and suffering; they are still spinning in the round of
rebirth (<em>saṁsāra-vaṭṭa</em>). Examples for this are the god Brahma, who
despite his elevated spiritual qualities still heedlessly considers
himself immortal,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn34-1"><a href="#fn-fn34">34</a></sup> and Indra (King of the Tāvatiṁsā heaven), who is
intoxicated with divine treasures.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn35-1"><a href="#fn-fn35">35</a></sup> People seek help from Indra, but
Indra himself is not without greed, hatred, delusion, and fear.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn36-1"><a href="#fn-fn36">36</a></sup>
Apart from the dependence on divine beings conflicting with the
principles of achievement through perseverance and effort, of
self-reliance, and of liberation, as mentioned earlier in the section on
psychic powers, there are many other harmful consequences to such
behaviour:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>It is not only human beings who are harmed when they give
propitiatory offerings to and curry favour with devas. Because most
devas are unenlightened, they too suffer harm when they become
enamoured with praise and attached to offerings, and increasingly
want more of these things. In this way, both humans and devas become
preoccupied with worship and the effects of worship, abandoning or
neglecting their personal responsibilities, and falling into
carelessness and decline.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Some devas, when they become infatuated with offerings and praise,
look for ways to increase a sense of obligation and dependence in
people. For this end, they may lure people by satisfying some of
their wishes so that the people have increased expectations and make
more offerings, or they may even deliberately cause a crisis so that
people will feel the need to turn to them.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>When acquisitive devas become obsessed with personal gain, virtuous
devas who help people without seeking personal advantage become
weary and stay away (customarily, devas do not wish to trouble
themselves or intervene in the affairs of human beings).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn37-1"><a href="#fn-fn37">37</a></sup> Good
people are then deprived of help and encouragement. As devas keen on
personal gain only help when they receive an entreaty or a
sacrificial gift, more people are then convinced that good deeds do
not lead to good results, but that it is evil deeds that lead to
good results. This causes social confusion.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>When virtuous devas stay away this gives even greater opportunity
for acquisitive devas to seek personal advantage. For example, when
people make entreaties to a specific deity whom they worship,
covetous devas will come and deceive people by pretending to be that
specific deity. People will not know better because this matter is
beyond their reach of comprehension. The deceitful, impersonating
devas will then cause the people to be more fascinated and beguiled
by the supernatural. {956}</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="proper-relationship-to-the-divine"><a class="header" href="#proper-relationship-to-the-divine">Proper Relationship to the Divine</a></h3>
<p>From these remarks we see that those people who receive assistance from
divine beings do not need to be good, and that good people do not
necessarily receive assistance from such beings. This is because, for
the most part, both humans and devas are unawakened and may practise
incorrectly; they then cause well-ordered systems in the world to be
disturbed and weakened.</p>
<p>Following are a few more observations on the subject of a proper
relationship to divine beings. First, devas are unable to unilaterally
and decisively control human circumstances or to determine the destiny
of human beings. Although it is generally understood that devas have
superior powers to humans, when humans develop themselves they are able
to equal or surpass the devas, as mentioned earlier. The deciding factor
for who is superior lies with an individual’s spiritual qualities and
effort, which is confirmed by this story in the Jātaka Tales:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Two kings from neighbouring kingdoms were preparing for battle. One
of the kings consulted with a rishi, who had psychic powers. This
rishi was able to converse with Indra, who informed him that the
king’s army would be victorious. The king therefore heedlessly let his
soldiers rest and entertain themselves. The other king, having heard
the prediction of his own defeat, redoubled efforts to strengthen his
army. In the ensuing battle, the army of this second king gained
victory. Indra, who was blamed, then uttered this divine maxim: ’<em>The
perseverance and effort of human beings, the devas are unable to
thwart</em>.’</em></p>
<p><em>J. III. 7; JA. III. 3-8.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>People often give honour and respect to the divine spirits that dwell in
their houses, but from one perspective these spirits are simply guests.
If the owner of the house is very virtuous, for example he or she is a
’noble disciple’ – secure in spiritual qualities and has progressed
from a reliance on faith to steadfast wisdom – the house devas do not
have control over the owner but rather must obey and respect him or her.</p>
<p>This is illustrated in the story of the deva who lived in the archway of
Anāthapiṇḍika’s house (Anāthapiṇḍika did not construct a special
dwelling for this deva). When Anāthapiṇḍika lost his wealth, the deva
came to him and suggested that he stop giving alms. Anāthapiṇḍika
considered this advice unrighteous and drove the deva away. The deva was
unable to find a new residence and thus went to Indra for help. Indra
instructed the deva on how to properly ask forgiveness from
Anāthapiṇḍika; on following this instruction the deva was given
permission to return to his original dwelling.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn38-1"><a href="#fn-fn38">38</a></sup></p>
<p>The accusations made by devas towards a person should not be taken as
ultimate criteria for the person’s faults or wrongs, because there are
many examples of devas disparaging good people. The deva mentioned in